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COFXRIGHT DEPOSE 



TORMEY AND LAWRY'S ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

VIVIAN'S EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY 
MOORE AND HALLIGAN'S PLANT PRODUCTION 

EDITED BY 
KIRK LESTER HATCH, B.S. 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON 




A contented herd of dairy cows in a well-shaded pasture. 




Ample range of good pasture should be given brood sows and their litters of young pigs. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 



BY 



JOHN L. TORMEY, B.S.A. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON 



AND 



ROLLA C. LA WRY, B.S.A. 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

BOSTON ATLANTA 



.16 



Copyright, 1920, by 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



TORJtfEY AND LA WRY ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

E P 1 



APR 1 i^u 



CLA565507 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

Tms series of agricultural texts is based on the theory that 
the successful farmer should know the physical and biological 
forces with which he has to contend ; that he should understand 
the laws under which these forces operate ; and that he should 
acquire some skill in directing them. He should ultimately 
become able to adjust and correlate these forces so as to bring 
them all under the orderly operation of economic law. In con- 
formity with the above theory this series has been made to cover 
the following fundamental divisions : 

The science and art of producing agricultural plants. 

The production, care, and management of farm animals. 

The establishment and conservation of soil fertility, with the 
chemistry of the same in relation to plant and animal production. 

The proper balance and combination of these three aspects 
of agricultural production, in the business management of the 
farm. 

What Vocational Agriculture Demands. — Vocational train- 
ing in agriculture should differ from trade instruction in 
one most important regard : trade training develops skilled 
workers for the various branches of an industry ; it neither 
develops, nor aims to develop, factory managers. It usually 
deals with parts of the construction, less frequently with the 
finished product, and more rarely still with the management 
of the manufacturing plant. Vocational agriculture, on the 
other hand, must train for the operation of the whole plant, as 
the farm is a unit in itself. The trained farmer must be skilled, 
not only in the arts of his varied industry, but also in the scien- 

5 



6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

tine management of the entire farm. Added to skill there must 
be knowledge and understanding. 

What the Federal Law Requires. — Under the Smith-Hughes 
law passed by Congress early in 191 7, vocational instruction 
in agriculture — to quote its language — "must provide for 
directed or supervised practice in agriculture either in a farm 
provided by the school or other farms for at least six months 
per year." There can be no question as to the meaning or the 
intent of this law. It demands that agricultural instruction 
shall be useful, practical, and of immediate application. 

What This Text is Designed to Accomplish. — The authors 
of this book have long held the opinion that is expressed in 
the Smith-Hughes law and made a condition of its fulfilment. 
They have therefore made radical departures from the usual 
style of textbook construction. In addition to the informa- 
tional material, emphasis is placed on frequent sets of Exercises 
intended to provoke class discussion and to direct attention 
to the established practices on the home farm. Following 
these exercises are lists of Home Projects designed to suggest 
how the lessons gained from study of the text may be turned at 
once to practical account. 

It is believed that by following the plan set forth in this 
volume teachers of vocational agriculture may fulfil the most 
vigorous demands of the Smith-Hughes law. It is hoped that 
students may also find herein something of inspiration, as well 
as of immediate practical use. 

KIRK LESTER HATCH. 



PREFACE 

Animal Husbandry includes both the art of breeding, 
feeding, and caring for live stock, and the fundamental 
laws of science upon which these practices are based. The 
ability of a stockman to raise and care for animals in a 
proper manner rests ultimately upon his knowledge of 
breeds, feeds, and housing conditions. 

The feeder well knows that the ever changing price of 
feeds has made his occupation one that requires both skill 
and scientific knowledge. He must raise suitable feeds 
that form a good crop rotation and which at the same time 
combine to make the most efficient ration for his purposes. 
Besides, he must purchase the by-products of milling estab- 
lishments, slaughterhouses, and oil factories, whose nutri- 
tive value must be known if an intelligent selection is to 
be made. 

The dairyman is continually being confronted with new 
problems. He must select his breeding animals with the 
greatest care. He must guard jealously the health of his 
herd, and he must conform to restrictions and requirements 
placed upon him by the state and by the manufacturers 
of his raw product. 

The successful stockman must understand live stock 
history and the rules governing the conduct of the various 
breed associations in order to select his breeding stock in- 
telligently. He must know the reasons for the sanitary 
precautions necessary to protect his animals from the 

7 



8 PREFACE 

ravages of infectious diseases, and the scientific basis for 
the restriction placed upon the importation of live stock. 

The prominence which poultry breeding has attained as 
a specialty, added to the widespread importance of raising 
fowls in both country and town, demands the space given 
to this section of the book. No aspect of animal husbandry 
requires more study of the fundamental principles of breed- 
ing, feeding, and marketing than does that of poultry. 

All these essential elements of successful live stock farm- 
ing make the study of animal husbandry one of especial 
interest not only to those who actually engage in farming 
but also to those who must depend upon agriculture for 
sustenance. 

This volume has been prepared with the hope that its 
pages will, in some measure, meet the needs of students 
of animal husbandry and create a deeper interest in the 
live stock industry. 



CONTENTS 



I. The Composition of the Animal Body 

II. Feeding Stuffs and Their Preparation 

III. Classes of Feeding Stuffs . 

IV. By-Product Feeding Stuffs . 
V. How the Animal Uses Its Feed 

VI. Breeds of Horses . 

VII. Breeds of Cattle . 

VIII. Breeds of Sheep and Goats . 

IX. Breeds of Swine 

X. Judging Cattle 

XI. Judging Swine and Sheep 

XII. Judging Horses 

XIII. Care and Management of Horses 

XIV. Care and Management of Beef Cattle 
XV. Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 

XVI. Care and Management of Sheep . 

XVII. Care and Management of Swine . 

XVIII. General Live Stock Improvement 

XIX. Farm Poultry .... 

XX. Incubation and Brooding 

XXI. Feeding, Care, and Management of Laying Hens 

XXII. Types and Breeds of Chickens 

XXIII. Turkeys, Ducks, and Geese . 

Appendix 



Index 



PAGE 
II 

22 

32 

51 

63 

79 
106 

131 

152 

165 

187 

202 

231 

236 

244 

251 

259 

265 

274 

281 

293 
307 
320 

333 
339 



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(10) 

A woods-pasture furnishing shade and protection from the weather is enjoyed by 
sheep, especially if water is plentiful. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER I 
THE COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 

In feeding animals, the feeder may consider himself a 
builder who uses feeds as materials with which to build 
the animal body. But the animal itself should be regarded 
as something more than a building. It may also be con- 
sidered as a machine which, while being operated and 
kept in running order, creates heat, performs work, repairs 
broken-down material, builds new material, and grows and 
reproduces itself. 

The plant and the animal bodies are built up from 
various substances which perform distinct functions and 
make up different parts of the organisms. The chemist 
has found about 13 chemical elements essential to plants. 
They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, 
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, 
silicon, and chlorine. These elements combine to form the 
following substances in both plant and animal life : 

1. Proteins, 4. Mineral substances, 

2. Carbohydrates, 5. Water. 

3. Fats, 

Proteins. — These substances contain carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulphur and phosphorus. 

11 



12 



COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 




Fig. i. — Soy beans are high in protein. 



Proteins form the most important part of feeding stuffs. 
As a rule the highest priced feeds are the richest in protein. 

Protein substances are found near the growing tips of 
plants and usually constitute a higher percentage of young 
than of old plants. They are also found stored in seeds 
around the embryo. In animals, they are even more 
abundant than in plants, forming the cell walls, lean-meat 
tissues, brain and nerve cells, hair, hoof, horn, nails, and 
structural material for all the working organs of the body. 

Protein materials usually contain 16 per cent nitrogen. 
In analyzing feeding stuffs for protein content, therefore, the 
chemist determines the percentage of nitrogen and multi- 



CARBOHYDRATES 13 

plies this by 6.25; that is, 100 per cent divided by 6.25. 
Feeds high in protein make up a number of the best com- 
mercial by-product feeds, such as wheat bran, middlings, 
linseed meal, and cottonseed meal. Farm-grown crops 
which are high in protein are alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, 
and peanuts. Since protein is essential for the building of 
living tissues, it is necessary in the feed of young growing 
animals and milk-producing females. It is also necessary 
in smaller amounts in the feeds of all other classes of ani- 
mals, for from it broken-down tissue is rebuilt. 

Carbohydrates. — These are defined as substances made 
up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with the hydrogen 
and oxygen in the same proportions as they are found in 
the composition of water, i.e., two parts by volume of 
hydrogen to one of oxygen. 

Included under the head of carbohydrates are starches, 
sugars, and cellulose. Cellulose forms the cell walls of 
plants and gives shape and stiffness to the stems, leaves, 
and seeds. Starch is stored in the seeds of plants like corn 
and wheat, and in roots and tubers like the potato. It 
serves as reserve material upon which the plant draws in 
time of need. Sugar is stored in roots as in the sugar 
beet, and in stems as in sugar cane. 

The cellulose material is coarse and woody and makes up 
what the chemist calls " crude fiber." It is practically 
indigestible. 

Starch and sugar form the valuable sources of carbo- 
hydrate feeding material. In the animal body, the carbo- 
hydrates consist largely of glycogen or animal starch and 
glucose, which are the forms in which this material is stored 
to be doled out to the animal, furnishing the heat and the 
energy necessary for doing work. When there is an excess 



14 



COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 



of this carbohydrate material, it is changed into fats and as 
such is deposited on the body of the animal. 

Feeds high in carbohydrate material are the cereal 
grains : corn, oats, rye, barley, rice, and buckwheat, which 
contain large amounts of starch. Potatoes contain a high 
percentage of starch, sugar beets a high proportion of sugar, 
and the stems of grasses a large amount of crude fiber. 

Fats. — Fats comprise a group of substances of varying 
composition. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, with a relatively high percentage of carbon in their 
composition. In animals, fats may be considered as food 
stored against the time of need. 

Because of their high carbon content fats liberate in burn- 
ing about 2\ times as much heat or energy as do carbo- 
hydrate substances ; hence fats are said to have 2 J times 
the energy value of carbohydrates. The percentage of fat 
in feed varies from .1 per cent in sugar beets to 39.6 per cent 
in peanuts. In animals it may vary from 15 per cent in the 
fat calf to 45 per cent or more in the body of the fat sheep. 



Hfci 


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-\\ ^.J itf -«9**?n1 .-*■ 


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Fig. 2. — Peanuts contain a high percentage of fat. 



MINERAL SUBSTANCES 



15 



Mineral Substances. — These occur in the plant in 
various compounds of calcium, phosphorus, potassium, 
sodium, and magnesium. In animals most of the mineral 
matter is to be found in the bones, though phosphorus, as 
has already been indicated, is essential to protein com- 
pounds. 

Such feeds as bran, alfalfa, clover, and peas are high in 
mineral matter, and for that reason are valuable for growing 
animals which need the minerals for bone building. The 
amount of mineral matter in feeds varies from .4 per 
cent in wheat flour to 64.4 per cent in some samples of raw 
ground bone. In animals, the mineral matter varies from 
1.65 per cent in the fat pig to 4.66 per cent in the half 
fat ox. 

Water. — Water is found in varying amounts in all liv- 
ing things. It is absolutely essential as a solvent of other 



WATER 



FAT 



PROTEIN" 







illll 










M 





111111 



Fig. 3. — Composition of the animal body. 



food materials ; it forms the basis of the circulating media 
in the body ; and it regulates the temperature of the organ- 
ism. In feeding stuffs, the amount of water varies from 
about 6 per cent in well-dried oat straw to over 90 per cent 
in green clover crops. Growing plants contain relatively 
more water than do mature ones. 

The bodies of young animals contain relatively more 
water than do those of older ones. The fatter the animal 



1 6 COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 

the lower is the percentage of water, because fatty tissue 
contains less water than lean tissue. In the body of the 
extra fat sheep the per cent of water may run as low as 35, 
while in the body of the store sheep there is about 57 per 
cent of water. This is one reason why the butcher pays 
the best price for the fat animal. 

Vitamines. — Until the last few years it was supposed 
that any feed containing proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and 
mineral matter combined in the proper proportions was a 
perfect feed. It has been recently discovered, however, 
that there are two other substances, called vitamines, 
whose chemical nature is at present unknown, which are 
necessary to life, growth, and reproduction. One of these 
substances is found in milk, unpolished rice, peanuts, 
kidney beans, and some other products. Since it is easily 
dissolved in water it is called water soluble vitamine. The 
other substance, found in butter fat, beef fat, cod-liver oil, 
margarines, leaves of cabbage and alfalfa, and in some seeds, 
is called fat soluble vitamine. Both vitamines are present 
in whole milk, cotton seeds, soy beans, kernels of corn, oats 
and wheat, and certain other plant and animal products. 
Young animals fed on feeds from which the vitamines have 
been removed fail to grow or even to live, and older animals 
fail to reproduce. The practical application of this dis- 
covery is to be found in feeding milk containing some but- 
ter fat to all young growing animals and in curing and stor- 
ing hay and other roughage in such manner that their life- 
giving vitamines will not be washed away by dew and rains. 

What Becomes of a Feeding Stuff in the Body of the 
Animal. — It has already been shown that there is a close 
relationship between the materials in the plant and in the 
animal body. The food materials in the plant, when eaten, 



WHAT HAPPENS TO FOOD 17 

undergo various changes before they can be utilized by the 
animal. Some of this material is not made use of at all but 
passes off as waste. 

What Happens to the Food. — Food, taken into the 
mouth, is chewed and mixed with a secreted liquid known 
as saliva. These processes are known as mastication and 
insalivation. The food is then passed into a long tortuous 
tube known as the digestive tract. In this tract it is broken 
down into simpler substances so that it may be absorbed. 
This breaking-down process is known as digestion. The 
process of taking the broken-down and dissolved food 
materials through the walls of the digestive tract is known 
as absorption. Transporting the materials to the different 
parts of the body and using them for the different purposes 
required is known as assimilation. 

The digestive tract of all farm animals consists of a long 
and a very crooked tube distended in certain parts for the 
storage of food. The canal is divided into the following 
parts : 

1. The gullet, extending from the mouth to the stomach, 

2. The stomach, 

3. The small intestine, which is divided into the duo- 
denum, the jejunum, and the ileum, and extending from 
the stomach to the large intestine, and 

4. The large intestine. 

In the case of the cow and sheep, which are called ruminat- 
ing animals, the gullet is expanded into three large recep- 
tacles in which the coarser rough foods are placed partially 
chewed by the animal. They remain here for a while, and 
later are returned to the mouth and rechewed. This process 
is known as rumination. The horse has a small stomach, 
but eats large quantities of hay. In the case of the horse, 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 2 



18 COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 

the feed passes on through the stomach and is stored in a 
large receptacle located between the small intestine and 
the large intestine known as the caecum. In this organ 
a great deal of absorption takes place. The hog con- 
sumes less roughage than the horse or the cow and has 
no such provision for the storing and softening of coarse 
roughage. 

Now what changes take place in the feeds as they pass 
through the digestive tract? 

Protein. — The protein material is first acted upon in the 
stomach by pepsin, a ferment of the gastric juice, secreted 
from the walls of the stomach. The gastric juice contains 
another ferment known as rennin which curdles milk so 
that it cannot pass through the stomach before being acted 
upon by the secretions of the stomach. The pepsin breaks 
the protein material down into simpler substances which 
are then passed on to the small intestine where they are 
acted upon by trypsin, an enzyme contained in the pan- 
creatic juice (secreted by the pancreas, a gland located near 
the stomach), and by the erepsin, a juice secreted by the 
walls of the small intestine. 

After having undergone all this action the protein material 
is changed finally into simple substances called amino acids. 
In this form it is absorbed from the digestive tract. 

In the circulation of the blood these protein substances 
are carried to different parts of the animal's body and used 
to build up new tissues such as muscular fibers, ligaments, 
nerves, hair, hoof, horn, and skin, and to repair tissues 
broken down in work. What is left, over and above these 
requirements, goes to furnish heat for the body and energy 
for work. Some of the excess is used to furnish protein 
for the milk of female animals. 



CARBOHYDRATES 19 

The greater part of the waste from the broken-down 
protein material is passed off through the kidneys in the 
urine. Small amounts are breathed out through the lungs 
and some passes off through the skin. 

From the above it is evident that the animal uses pro- 
tein for repairing waste and building up new material, 
and, when the protein is furnished in sufficient amount, to 
supply heat and energy. The importance of protein in the 
ration is obvious. No tissue building and consequently 
no growth can take place unless protein food is furnished in 
sufficient quantity. 

Carbohydrates. — The carbohydrates make up the 
greatest bulk of the feeding stuffs. The digestive tracts of 
farm animals are arranged to accommodate large amounts 
of these substances. 

The changes in these food materials begin in the mouth. 
While the food is being chewed, it is mixed with a liquid 
known as saliva, secreted by glands in the mouth. The 
function of the saliva is to moisten and soften the food so 
that it may be easily swallowed ; and to change the in- 
soluble starch into a soluble sugar called maltose. The 
action of the saliva continues on down the gullet and into 
the stomach. The maltose is not yet in condition to be 
absorbed by the system, but must be changed into a simpler 
carbohydrate form known as glucose. 

The carbohydrate materials pass into the small intestine 
where they are broken down into simpler forms which may 
be absorbed from the digestive tract and assimilated by the 
animal body. 

In the case of animals that live upon foods containing 
large amounts of crude fiber, or cellulose, special digestive 
structures are found. As has already been noted, the ox 



20 



COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 



and sheep have four so-called stomachs, although the first 
three are only enormous distentions of the gullet. These 
parts are called the rumen or paunch, the honeycomb or 
reticulum, the many plies or omasum, and the abomasum or 
true stomach. In the last named, regular digestion takes 

place. In the first three 
named, especially in the 
paunch, there is room 
for vast quantities of 
rough feed. Here the 
rough feed lies for a time 
until it is regurgitated, 
chewed, swallowed the 
second time, and passed 
to the third stomach 
or manyplies. In the 
paunch, there is gener- 
ally a great evolution of 
gas, due to bacterial fermentation. Under ordinary con- 
ditions, these gases are taken up by the blood circulation 
and expelled from the body through the lungs. 

Often when large amounts of green, dew-laden clover 
or alfalfa are taken into the paunch, the evolution of gas 
is greater than the blood can dispose of and bloat or hoven 
occurs. If not relieved, the animal becomes greatly dis- 
tressed, and the toxic or poisonous properties of these gases 
may cause sickness or death. 

Fats. — ■ The fats are not so readily changed by the 
digestive fluids as are the proteins and the carbohydrates. 
As they pass along they are first acted upon by steapsin 
(an enzyme secreted by the pancreas) and converted 
into soaps. Fats themselves are not soluble and are 




Fig. 4. — Stomachs of the sheep. 



EXERCISES 21 

changed to soaps so that they may be absorbed from the 
digestive tract. These soaps are converted back to fats 
after they have passed through the walls of the intestines 
and are then taken into the circulation. The fat that is not 
used to create heat or energy for external work is made into 
fatty tissue which serves as a food reserve. 

Mineral Matter and Water. — Water is used all along the 
digestive tract as a solvent. It is found in all parts of the 
body, forming a necessary part of all tissues. Without 
water there can be no circulation whatever. 

Mineral matter is taken up in solution all along the 
digestive tract, and is carried by the circulation to all parts 
of the body. Calcium or lime is used in building the skele- 
ton. Phosphorus . is used in the skeleton and also plays 
an important part in the protoplasm and cells of the animal. 
It is also found in protein compounds. Iron is found in the 
blood and to its presence is due the power of the red corpus- 
cles to carry oxygen. Magnesium is found in the bones 
and in the blood, chlorine is necessary in protein digestion in 
the stomach, and sodium and potassium are found in the 
serum and the red corpuscles of the blood. 

EXERCISES 

i. Name a list of feeds high in starch. In oil. In protein. 
In sugar. 

2. Classify the above feeds in order of the relative amounts 
of these substances which they contain. 

3. Make a list of feeds of high water content and classify them 
in order. 

HOME PROJECT 

Make a collection of all the feeds used on the home farm and 
classify them in order of their most important content. 



CHAPTER II 



FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION 

How Feeding Stuffs are Analyzed. — In analyzing feed- 
ing stuffs the chemist determines the percentage of the 
following substances : water, ash, protein, fat, crude 
fiber, and nitrogen free extract. All of these are capable 
of furnishing nourishment to the animal body, hence they 
are called nutrients. 

To determine the amounts of water and ash the chemist 
first takes a known weight of the feeding stuff, dries it at a 




WATER PROTEIN 

Fig. 5. — Composition of feeding stuffs. 



MINERAL OTHER 

SUBSTANCE SUBSTANCES 



temperature of 212 F. for a few hours, reweighs and repeats 
the drying process. When it finally comes to a constant 
weight the difference between the original and the dry 
weight is the amount of water driven off. Dividing the 
weight of water by the weight of the original sample 



22 



ANALYSIS 23 

gives the percentage of water. The dry part of the sample 
is then burned. Mineral matter will not burn. The ash 
remaining therefore represents the amount of mineral 
matter. 

As already indicated, the protein is found by first deter- 
mining the nitrogen and multiplying it by 6.25. Since 
about 16 per cent of protein is nitrogen, the weight of pro- 
tein is 6.25 times the weight of nitrogen. 

Another sample of the feeding stuff is next treated with 
dilute acids and alkalies to remove all soluble portions. The 
insoluble part remaining is called crude fiber. It is com- 
posed chiefly of cellulose, abundant in seed coats, hulls, 
husks, and stems of plants. Crude fiber is largely in- 
digestible. Feeds that are high in crude fiber and low in 
the more soluble nutrients are called roughages. Those 
comparatively low in crude fiber and high in the other 
nutrients are called concentrates. 

Another sample is treated with ether. The portion 
soluble in ether is considered as fat although the term ether 
extract is to be preferred, because ether dissolves waxes, 
resins, and gums as well as fat. Waxes, gums, and resins 
are more abundant in roughage than in concentrates, hence 
the ether extract of roughage is less valuable than that of 
concentrates. Fat is very valuable as a nutrient. 

Sugars and starches are included under the term nitrogen 
free extract. The sum of the ash, fat, protein, and crude 
fiber is subtracted from the total dry matter. The differ- 
ence is the nitrogen free extract. The sum of the nitrogen 
free extract and the crude fiber makes up the carbohy- 
drates of the feeding stuff. 

An analysis of corn and timothy hay will serve to illus- 
trate the varying amounts of the different nutrients. 



24 FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION 





Corn 

% 


Timothy Hay 

% 


Water 

Ash 


10.6 

i-5 
10.3 

2.2 
70.4 

5-o 


14.1 
3-9 
5-° 

3i.i 

43-7 
2.2 


Crude protein 


Crude fiber 


Nitrogen free extract 

Fat 






Total 


100. 


100. 







It will be seen from the above that timothy hay, a rough- 
age, is much higher in crude fiber and lower in nitrogen free 
extract than is corn, a concentrate. 

In general, the value of a feeding stuff depends upon 
the digestible nutrients the feed contains. The animal 
cannot use all of each nutrient in a feed. There will be some 
waste. It is only the part of the feed that the animal 
utilizes that is of value. This is called the digestible 
nutrient and can be determined only by experiment. By 
digestibility is meant the relation which that portion of the 
nutrient retained and used by the animal bears to the total 
amount. This may be expressed in percentages called 
coefficients of digestibility. There are three general 
methods employed for determining the digestibility of feed. 
Only one of these, the most common and the least com- 
plicated, is explained in the following paragraph. 

How Digestibility is Determined. — Digestion experi- 
ments are conducted with ruminating animals, either cattle 
or sheep. The animal is confined in a stall and an accurate 
account kept both of the feed fed and the amount of solid 
excrement. Both feed and solid excrement are weighed 
and analyzed. The difference in analysis between these 



DIGESTIBILITY 



25 



amounts represents the amount digested. From these data 
it is easy to determine the percentage of digestible nutrients 
in a feeding stuff. The relative values of feeds may be 
found by comparing the amounts of digestible nutrients 
which they contain as shown by the tables in the Appendix. 
Factors Influencing Digestibility. — There are many 
factors which influence the digestibility of feeds. The most 
common of these are : 

1. The relative amounts of the different nutrients. Feeds 
high in crude fiber and low in nitrogen free extract, such as 
coarse fodders, are low in digestibility, while those low in 
crude fiber and high in nitrogen free extract, such as con- 
centrates, are high in digestibility. 

2. The maturity of the plant. The stage of maturity has 
an effect upon the digestibility of roughages. The younger 
the plant, the higher the digestibility. This is due in a 
measure to the fact that as the plant advances in age, the 
crude fiber becomes more woody and harder for the diges- 
tive juices to dissolve. But the amounts of starch and sugar 
also increase, so that the total amounts of digestible material 
increase as the plant approaches maturity. 




Fig. 6. — Grinding and cutting machines used to increase digestibility of feeds. 



26 FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION 

3. Grinding or crushing feed. In some cases grinding and 
crushing increase the digestibility of feeds. The value of 
crushing is especially marked in grains having a heavy outer 
husk, like oats and barley, which prevents the digestive 
juices from acting freely upon the more digestible interiors. 
Grinding seems to be more valuable for horses and pigs than 
for ruminants, whose paunches enable them to more com- 
pletely break down the coarse husks. 

4. Cooking. Cooking has been found to lower the digest- 
ibility of protein. In most cases investigators have found 
that the digestibility of feeding stuffs is lowered by cooking, 
though some starchy foods like potatoes are improved in 
feeding quality. Skillful feeders often cook feeds for prize 
animals for the purpose of adding variety to the ration. 




Fig. 7. — The digestibility of fodder depends on its proper curing. 

5. Drying and curing. Drying forage does not lower its 
digestibility, although more work on the part of the diges- 
tive organs is required to masticate it completely and to 
carry it through the alimentary tract. Faulty curing may 
cause a loss of some of the more digestible parts of the plant. 



DIGESTIBILITY 27 

6. The kind of animal. Animals of the same species 
digest food about equally well, although individuals may 
vary greatly in this power. Cattle and sheep digest rough- 
age better than do horses and pigs, because the fermenta- 
tion which takes place in their paunches breaks down the 
cellulose structure. The difference is less noticeable when 
concentrated foods are fed. 

7. Frequency of feeding. The time of watering or the fre- 
quency and the order of feeding do not seem to affect the di- 
gestibility, although changes in order and time of feeding and 
watering may seriously affect the physical condition of the 
animal and thus lower the final nutritive effect of a ration. 

8. The amount of food given. The amount of food given 
may affect digestibility. The digestibility has been found 
to increase on half rations and is probably due to more 
intense action on the part of the digestive juices. On the 
other hand, too much food may tax the digestive system, 
and some of it may pass through unchanged. 

9. The amount of work. Medium work has been found to 
have a favorable influence upon digestibility, while hard or 
fast work lowers digestibility. 

10. The age of the animal. After the digestive organs 
have reached full development and before they become 
impaired by old age, the power to digest food is greatest. 
Aside from this, age does not seem to influence digestibility. 

11. The breed. One breed of animal digests food as well 
as another, although individuals may vary in this respect. 

12. The value of kindness. Harsh treatment may in- 
fluence digestibility by interfering with a normal secretion 
of digestive fluids. 

The Preservation and Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. — 
In localities where feeding stuffs must be kept from one 



28 FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION 



season of the year to another, the question of preservation 
and its effect upon their feeding value is of large impor- 
tance. There are two general methods now in use, viz., 

drying or curing, and 
ensiling. 

Drying or Curing. 
— The majority of 
forage crops are so 
high in water con- 
tent when harvested 
that a process of cur- 
ing must be resorted 
to. While the mere 
drying of a foodstuff 
does not impair its 
nutritive value, there 
is generally a loss 
of feeding value 
through curing, be- 
cause leaves are shat- 
tered in handling, 
and aroma is lost by 
the evaporation of 
dew. Bleaching by 
the sun also causes 
a chemical loss, and 
the rain and the dew 
carry off valuable nutrients in solution. Corn forage, al- 
lowed to stand in the field over winter, loses not less than 
25 per cent of its feeding value by leaching and bleaching. 
The making of good hay is an art. Since the leaves of 
alfalfa and clover contain the most valuable part of the 




Fig. 8. 



Chopping corn forage and storing it in 
a silo. 



ENSILING 29 

nutrients, the secret of successful haymaking is to withdraw 
the water so uniformly from the leaves and stems that the 
leaves may not be lost. 

Since heating will cause a loss of its feeding value, early 
picked corn and grain threshed out of the shock, or from 
stacks, before sweating has taken place, should be care- 
fully watched to prevent heating. 

Ensiling. — Ensiling is the storing of crops as soon as they 
are cut in air-tight receptacles called silos. This method 
reduces the losses to a minimum. Ensiling preserves the 
entire plant without loss of water, thus producing a succulent 
feeding stuff. The chemical changes which take place in 
the silo make the feed more pleasing to the taste. These 
qualities give the ensiled crop a decided advantage over 
dried crops. The silo extends the conditions of summer 
feeding throughout the year. This is one of the strong 
points in favor of silage as a feed for producing both milk 
and beef. 

Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. — In general, the less 
preparation made of feeding stuffs, the more economical the 
feeding process. However, the value of the feeding stuff 
may sometimes be increased by cutting, grinding, or soaking. 
Cutting. — Hay or straw for horses and cattle is often 
improved by cutting it in lengths of 2 or 3 inches. This 
may be mixed and fed with a grain ration. In this way the 
value of the hay is apparently increased because the animals 
eat it with greater relish, and the grain goes further because 
it is better masticated by the animal. Shredding corn 
stover does not increase its feeding value but it reduces the 
stover to a form that is more easily stored, handled, and fed. 
The waste makes good bedding, is an excellent absorbent of 
liquid manure, and is easily applied to the soil. 



30 FEEDING STUFFS AND THEIR PREPARATION 

Grinding and Crushing. — For fattening hogs there is 
no economy in grinding corn. In feeding young pigs or 
older animals for show purposes there may be some ad- 
vantage in grinding. More rapid gains and a better finish 
may be put on, but these will be accomplished at an in- 
creased cost. 

It does not pay to grind corn for fattening cattle if hogs are 
following. The gains made by the hogs are more valuable 
than the increased gains made by the cattle on ground corn, 
to say nothing of the cost of grinding. In case of feeding 
without hogs following, the grain should be ground to pre- 
vent loss of feed. For fitting cattle for show purposes, 
improved finish and more rapid gains may be made by feed- 
ing ground grains. 

The dairy cow under the severe strain of heavy milking 
needs ground feed. This saves her energy for milk produc- 
tion and better results are thus obtained. 

Calves do better on cracked or crushed grains because 
their organs of mastication are not so well developed and 
their digestive tracts are not so capable of handling the 
unground feed as those of the mature animal. Fine grind- 
ing should not be resorted to because of the additional cost, 
and because finely ground grain does not properly exercise 
the digestive organs. 

Feeders of large numbers of work horses feed crushed grain 
and cut hay to good advantage. They find there is an 
actual saving in the amount of grain necessary ; besides the 
horses are kept in better condition. 

Sheep can usually grind their own grain, but young lambs 
do better on crushed or cracked grains. 

Barley and old corn, on account of their hardness, are 
digested better by all animals when crushed. 



EXERCISES 31 

Cooking and Soaking. — All modern investigators are 
agreed that uncooked foods are better for farm animals. 
For adding variety and palatability to the ration and im- 
proving the finish of animals being fitted for show, without 
regard to economy, cooked feeds are fed with good results. 

Soaking feeds often improves them by rendering them 
more easily masticated and carried along the digestive 
tract. The mouths of grass-fed beef cattle often become 
sore from eating hard, dry corn. For them the corn may 
be improved by soaking for twelve hours before feeding. 
Barley is also improved for pigs by soaking it for the 
same length of time. 

Care of Wet Feeds. — Slop or moistened feeds should not 
be allowed to stand long in dirty barrels, vats, or other 
receptacles. Under such conditions souring takes place 
and feeds become unpalatable. Disastrous results to ani- 
mals may follow a neglect to keep receptacles clean. 

EXERCISES 

1. Would you feed ground corn to pigs? Why? 

2. Does it pay to give feeds special preparation? 

3. For what purposes should feed receive special preparation? 
How should it be prepared? 

4. Which is to be preferred as a feed, pound for pound, grass 
or dry hay? 

HOME PROJECT 

By feeding two lots of pigs, one on whole corn and the other 
on ground corn, and slop, and keeping accurate records, com- 
pare these two methods of feeding corn. All other conditions 
must be the same. 



CHAPTER III 

CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Feeding stuffs are usually classified as roughages, con- 
centrates, and root crops. 

Roughages. — Roughages are bulky feeds that come 
from the grasses and forage crops. They have a low 
amount of digestible material in proportion to their weight. 
Included under the head of roughages are the grasses, the 
legumes, the straws of different cereals, silage, and stover. 

Concentrates. — Included under this head are the cereal 
grains, the oil-bearing seeds, and a large number of so- 
called by-product feeding stuffs from the following sources : 
the milling of grains, the manufacture of cereal foods, 
starch, sugar and glucose, and the extraction of oils, and 
the slaughtering of animals. Concentrates are just what 
the name implies, concentrated feeds, since they are high 
in the easily digested nutrients. 

Roots and Tubers. — This group of feeding stuffs in- 
cludes a large number of crops that form a valuable source 
of food for animals in countries where corn cannot be 
successfully grown. Root crops may be considered as 
very succulent concentrates. 

The Grasses. — Grass is the natural diet of all our 
domesticated live stock and the experienced feeder knows 
that the more he keeps his stock on a diet which closely 
resembles grass pasture the more successful his feeding. 

32 



ROOTS AND CORN 



33 



Included among the grasses are corn, Kentucky blue 
grass, timothy, orchard grass, redtop, prairie grass, marsh 
grass, quack grass, brome grass, Bermuda grass, Johnson 
grass, Italian rye grass, the cereal grains, and other more 
or less important grasses. 

Corn as Roughage. — Though usually grown for the 
grain to be used for human and animal consumption. 




Beet 



Carrot 
Fig. o. 



Parsnip 
Roots used for food. 



Mangel-wurzel 



corn is in reality a giant grass. It is more valuable to the 
American farmer than all the other grains produced. When 
it is planted in rows about $% feet apart it reproduces the 
grain more than a thousandfold. Indeed the richness of 
our soils in many sections of the country is rated by the 
amount of corn that can be raised upon them. When 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 3 



34 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

this great crop is grown thickly in the row, or is sown broad- 
cast upon the field, a veritable giant grass crop is formed 
that will yield 10 to 20 tons of green material per acre. 

As a feed for all classes of live stock corn is unsurpassed. 
It should be remembered, however, that it is a highly 
carbonaceous feed and should not be depended upon en- 
tirely for feed for the young, or for the mother animal 
producing milk. 

The Sorghums. — These embrace a number of large 
grasses which are becoming more and more important to 
the farmers of the semiarid regions of the West and 
Southwest. Although some of these plants are as large 
as corn they differ from it in that the seeds grow at the 
top of the plant instead of in the axil of the leaf, as is the 
case with corn. These plants are better than corn for 
dry climates because they do not suffer so easily from 
drought. The commonest of the sorghums used for feeds 
are Kafir, amber cane, and broom corn. 

The Smaller Grasses. — While the farmer recognizes the 
value of corn and the sorghums for furnishing large yields 
of roughage, he looks to the smaller grasses, which need 
no cultivation and live on from year to year, for hay and 
pasture. 

Kentucky Blue Grass. — Ordinary blue grass is the 
common grass of large sections of the country and is found 
in abundance in Kentucky, Missouri, and the Virginias. 
It flourishes where there is much lime in the soil, and if 
left to itself for a few years will drive out other plants. 
Grazing sections are valued in proportion to their ability 
to produce blue grass. A great many of the best beef 
cattle of the country are annually fattened on blue grass 
as a part or all of the ration. 



GRASSES 



35 



Timothy. — Timothy is the commonest grass grown for 
hay. On the market it sells well because it is clean and 
bright and of uniform quality. The farmer likes it because 
it is easy to seed and easy to cure into hay. 

Timothy hay is low in protein and ash and high in 
crude fiber. These qualities make it a poor feed for young 
animals, for sheep, 
and dairy cows. It 
should not be fed to 
these animals when 
clover or alfalfa 
is available. It is 
the popular hay for 
horses because it is 
free from dust and 
easy to handle and 
store. It can be fed 
to beef cattle dur- 
ing the later stages 
of fattening when 
they consume only 
small amounts of 
hay, but clover or 
alfalfa are more 
economical for this 
purpose. 

Orchard Grass. — Orchard grass is grown in shady places 
where other grasses do not thrive on account of the scarcity 
of sunlight. This grass is very coarse and when allowed to 
mature fully is too high in crude fiber, and too low in pro- 
tein, to make good feed for young stock. If cut before 
fully ripe, and properly cured, it makes good hay. 




Fig. 10. 



Timothy from blossom (left) to maturity 
(right). 



36 



CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Redtop. — This is sometimes mistaken for blue grass 
which it closely resembles. It grows on low damp places 
and matures early in the summer. When young and soft 
it makes fairly good pasture, but it becomes wiry and tough 

as it approaches ma- 
turity. To make 
good hay it should 
be cut early. 

Prairie Grass. — 
The original grass of 
all prairie regions is 
tall with but few 
leaves. When the 
land is once broken 
up this grass disap- 
pears. It is thus be- 
coming extinct in 
cultivated sections 
of the country, and 
is of little economic 
importance. When 
cut and cured it 
makes good hay for 
horses, being espe- 
cially free from dust. 
Marsh Grass. — 
This coarse, woody grass is valuable in dry years to take 
the place of pasture grass for those who have unreclaimed 
marsh land. It cures into a clean hay but it is too low in 
protein to be valuable as a food for young stock and milk- 
producing animals. 

Brome Grass. — This grass is quite commonly culti- 




Fig. ii. — Brome grass. 



GRASSES 37 

vated in the northwestern part of the Mississippi Valley 
and grown with success in the Dakotas and Canada. In 
these regions it is a heavier yielder than blue grass and has 
higher feeding value than timothy, especially for growing 
stock and for dairy cattle. It is also good for pasture. 

Bermuda Grass. — This grass grows in the cotton belt 
states where it is more valuable for pasture than is blue 
grass. It is so persistent in its habits of growth that it is 
considered a pest in cultivated fields. If made into hay it 
should be cut early, because it becomes woody as it ap- 
proaches maturity. 

The Cereals as Grasses. — The cereals are usually grown 
for their seeds or grain. When pastures are poor or in 
case of insufficient land, the cereals may be used for feeding 
green as soiling crops, or they may be grazed off for pas- 
ture. If cut while the grain is still in the milk, a bright, 
nutritious hay may be made. Oats are the best substitute 
for grass, making the best pasture and the best hay. Barley 
is next in value and rye stands last. 

The Legumes. — The legumes are plants which produce 
their seeds in pods. When the proper bacteria are pres- 
ent in the soil they have the power of fixing the free 
nitrogen of the air and storing it in nodules which develop 
upon their roots. In this way these plants add nitro- 
gen to the soil upon which they grow. They utilize nitro- 
gen in the growth of their stems and leaves. Hence they 
contain a high percentage of protein. They form the prin- 
cipal source of high protein roughages. 

The principal legumes are alfalfa, the clovers (medium 
red, mammoth, alsike, Japan, white, sweet, and crimson), 
peas, cowpeas, beans, peanuts, vetches, sanfoin, and 
seradella. 



38 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa flourishes in the semiarid regions of 
the West. It is the best of hay crops. The leaves which 
carry most of the protein are the most valuable portions of 
the plant. 

In regions where alfalfa flourishes it makes the best of 
pastures. In some of the Western States large yields of 
milk are secured from cows running upon alfalfa pasture. 
Steers, hogs, sheep, and horses are also fattened on alfalfa 
pasture only. In the Middle West and the Mississippi 
Valley, however, it is not advisable to pasture this crop 
when the ground is soft, as the feet of the animals cut the 
crowns and thus seriously damage the plants. There is 
special danger, if sheep or cattle are turned on to alfalfa 
fields wet with rain or dew, from bloat, or hoven, that is 
likely to follow. 

In making the hay, great care should be taken to save 
the leaves, which break of! very easily. 

Alfalfa can be ensiled with fairly good results. It should 
be considered as a hay crop, however, and ensiled only 
when wet weather prevents making it into hay. Alfalfa 
silage has a much stronger smell than corn silage and un- 
less it is cut into short lengths it is hard to remove from 
the silo. 

For the dairy cow there is no hay so good as alfalfa. It 
is the best source of home-grown protein, and furnishes, 
in the cheapest form, the constituents so necessary to milk 
production. For steer feeding, it is the best roughage to 
feed with corn, since it balances the ration by supplying 
the protein and mineral matter in which corn is deficient. 
Fed alone to steers it fattens them well. For calves, it is 
the best roughage, because it supplies the crude fiber neces- 
sary to proper development of the paunch of the calf, and 



LEGUMES 



39 



also contains the protein and mineral matter essential for 
the calf's growth. If fed judiciously in limited amounts, 
it is especially valuable for the growing colt. It is one of 
the best roughages for all classes of sheep. Hogs relish 
alfalfa hay better than any other roughage. For young 
growing pigs, it is 
valuable either as 
pasture in connec- 
tion with the ordi- 
nary ration or cut 
and fed in the form of 
slop. For feeding the 
mothers of all young 
animals the hay is 
the best roughage 
that can be obtained. 

Medium Red 
Clover. — Medium 
red clover is one of 
the commonest leg- 
umes in the North- 
ern States, and is 
the usual crop sown 
in rotations with 
corn, grain, and hay. 
cause of its smaller yields and lower protein content, its 
more extensive cultivation renders it equal to alfalfa as a 
feeding stuff. 

Mammoth Red Clover. — As the name implies, this 
clover is larger and coarser than the medium red variety, 
and is not grown so widely for feed. It ripens somewhat 
earlier than the medium red. It may be pastured in the 



MH 








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•-z' ■* ■ **/ ■"'■,* ' ' 




. • -,• 






■■'i* ~ 






&$: Hi 


'•» .• j <£%&?, 





Fig. 12. — Alfalfa is the best of hay crops. 

While not so valuable as alfalfa be- 



4° 



CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 



spring for two or three weeks and then cut before it gets too 
coarse, in which case, if well cured, it makes good hay. 
The second crop is usually plowed under. 

Alsike Clover. — This clover which resembles white 
clover is much larger and has pink blossoms instead. It is 
usually grown with timothy. It is not so heavy a yielder 
as medium red clover but is of finer texture and makes an 
excellent quality of hay for all classes of live stock. 

Crimson Clover. — This variety is grown most exten- 
sively in the East and South. If cut early, it makes a good 

quality of hay. 
After it has begun 
to ripen, the heads 
are covered with 
barbed hairs which 
may form balls in 
the intestines of 
horses and cause 
serious digestive 
troubles sometimes 
resulting in death. 
White Clover.— 
White clover is pe- 
rennial in nature 
and the best crops 
are grown on well- 
drained clay lands. 
It makes good pas- 
ture but it is said 
to cause an abundant secretion of saliva in horses. 

Sweet Clover. — This legume is sometimes regarded as 
a weed and is not extensively sown as a hay or pasture 





■- ^ ■■ : "-"" . .■ .■" ■ -' ' - 




^^ 


'■r/' 
* + m + '* *£Z 






M Jm 


1 



frig- 13- 



Medium red clover. One of our commonest 
legumes. 



LEGUMES 41 

crop. If it is cut early before it has become too coarse and 
woody, it makes a valuable hay. For this reason it is grow- 
ing rapidly in favor in certain sections of the country. 

Peas. — Peas are often very profitably grown with oats, 
when the crop is to be grazed off by hogs, or to be fed to 
dairy cows. In districts where peas are grown for canning 
purposes, the vines are cured into hay or made into silage. 
As silage they form one of the best feeds for fattening sheep. 
They may also be used for feeding dairy cows and beef cat- 
tle. Ensiled pea vines contain a large amount of water, 
and if fed in too large quantities may cause serious diges- 
tive disturbances. They should always be fed in connec- 
tion with hay or a dry grain ration to counteract this tend- 
ency. Peas contain high percentages of both phosphorus 
and protein which make them excellent feed for all classes 
of young stock. The dried seeds when ground are valuable 
as feed for hogs and dairy cattle. 

Beans. — While beans are usually grown for human 
food, they may be used to good advantage for feeding 
stock. They are high in protein and mineral matter. 
Where beans are raised for the market, the straw is valu- 
able as a roughage for fattening sheep. 

Cowpeas. — Cowpeas are grown extensively south of the 
Ohio River. In some of the North Central States fairly 
good results have been obtained from their use. They are 
hard to cure, but where they can be grown successfully, 
they may form a good roughage for sheep and dairy cows. 

Peanuts. — Though usually grown for human consump- 
tion, peanuts are used as a feed for live stock to a con- 
siderable extent in some states. Hogs do well when turned 
upon the crop in the field and allowed to dig the peanuts 
tor themselves. When peanuts are harvested in the usual 



42 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

way the vines may be cured into a nutritious hay and fed 
to horses, cattle, and sheep. 

Vetch. — Hairy vetch is the principal vetch grown as a 
feed for live stock. It makes good pasture for hogs, cattle, 
and sheep, and can be made into a hay of excellent quality. 

Straw. — This term applies to the stalks of the cereals 
after the grain has been removed. Straw is high in crude 
fiber and low in protein, nitrogen free extract, fat, and 
mineral matter. It is therefore low in digestibility. 

As a feeding stuff, straw is very useful to supply rough- 
age to horses and cattle that are being maintained over 
winter. It is often fed with advantage to fattening steers 
along with a liberal supply of concentrates and other rough- 
ages. It may also be cut into short lengths and intro- 
duced into the grain ration of the horse. " Heavy " and 
other greedy horses should receive some straw as part of 
their rations to prevent overeating of dusty hay. Oat 
straw is the best. Barley straw comes next in feeding 
value. Wheat and rye straw have small value as feed. 

Concentrates. — Concentrates or concentrated feeding 
stuffs, as they are sometimes called, are necessary in the 
rations of all animals that are performing hard work, or 
that are being fattened, or those which are rearing young. 

Concentrates may be classified under the following 
groups : 

i . Seeds of various plants, 

2. Commercial by-product feeds. 

Under the head of seeds come the cereal grains, oil-bear- 
ing seeds, and leguminous seeds low in oil. Under the head 
of " by-products " come a great many feeds that are the 
result of commercial operations in the manufacture of 
certain commodities. 



CEREALS 



43 



Corn. — Corn is the king of American crops. The grain 
is high in starch and fat. It is comparatively low in pro- 
tein and mineral matter and contains but a small amount 
of crude fiber. It is one of the best feeds to put on fat 
and to furnish heat and energy to the animal. Since the 
corn kernel is low in 
protein and mineral 
matter, so important 
for growth, corn 
should not be the 
sole feed for the 
growing animal, or 
the dairy cow, but 
should always be fed 
with some other feed 
that is high in these 
important sub- 
stances. Normal 
growth is impossible 
on an exclusive corn 
ration. 

Corn may well 
make up a part of 
the rations of all of 
our farm animals, 
provided good judg- 
ment is exercised in 
the amounts and the proportions fed. For the dairy cow 
from 20 per cent to 50 per cent of the ration may be made 
up of corn. For fattening steers it is practically indispen- 
sable. Although there is a prevalent notion that corn is 
not a good feed for horses, it has been found as effective as 




Fig. 14. — Carcass of hog, fed on corn alone, and one 
of hog fed on corn and alfalfa. 



44 



CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 



oats, which is usually considered to be the standard feed. 
For fattening horses for the market, corn has been found 
cheaper and better than any other farm-grown feed. For 
the fattening of sheep and lambs, corn is very valuable. 
In America, corn is the chief ration for hogs. 





. . 


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"* 


M 












** x 








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Mffi 


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W* •* JfHt 


/•I 










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■ • ' < 


1 "'"'.*■ 


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815 


1 IkTi 




■ 




-■ 






.-V • 


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la? ^re 











Fig. 15. — Fattening hogs on unhusked corn. 



Wheat. — Wheat is raised in large amounts for human 
consumption, and is generally taken as a standard when 
considering the price of foodstuffs. 

As a feed for live stock, wheat is of little importance, 
because it is generally too high in price. However, it 
often happens that some of the grain is damaged by rains, 
frost, or blight. These damaged kernels are useful for feed- 
ing purposes. Wheat is higher in protein and mineral 
matter than corn and is therefore to be preferred in the 
ration of the growing animal. 

Oats. — This grain stands next to corn as a feeding 
stuff. Oats is very variable in quality and in weight per 



CEREALS 45 

bushel. The standard weight calls for 32 pounds, but this 
may vary from 20 pounds in the South, where a great deal 
of hull appears, to 40 pounds in the states of the North- 
west, where a more plump kernel with less hull is pro- 
duced. Per hundred pounds of weight, this grain is higher 
in protein and mineral matter than corn, but is lower in 
digestible carbohydrates due to a higher percentage of 
crude fiber and a somewhat lower percentage of starch. 
It is higher in fat than wheat. 

Oats is one of the safest of feeds. Due to the high 
amount of crude fiber it carries, it is not a heavy feed ; 
and its well-proportioned amounts of the various nutrients 
make it approach more nearly to the requirements of a 
properly balanced ration, for all classes of animals, than 
any other single feeding stuff. It is the best feed for the 
road horse. For growing young horses, calves, and sheep 
it is almost indispensable, forming either all or part of the 
grain rations for these animals. It may also form about 
20 per cent or more of the grain ration for the dairy cow, 
and some of the slop ration for the brood sow. The high 
amount of crude fiber makes this grain poorly adapted for 
fattening swine. It is well to have oats in the ration of 
the young lamb, and the breeding ewe. Oats makes a 
good feed for all classes of male animals. 

Barley. — This cereal grain is one of the most widely 
grown crops that the world produces, and forms one of the 
principal sources of human food. For this purpose, large 
quantities are used in the manufacture of pearl barley. 
As a feeding stuff, it is good for all classes of farm animals. 

In the western part of the United States, barley is the 
principal horse feed, and in parts of the country near the 
corn belt, it is growing in popularity as a substitute for oats. 



46 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Because of the hard outside hull, this grain is better for the 
horse if crushed. As a feed for cattle, mixed with corn, 
it makes a better feed than either barley or corn fed alone. 
For the dairy cow it should be either crushed or ground. 
Barley is also used for feeding hogs. Since it ripens early, 
it makes a good feed for summer and early fall. In the form 
of slop, with ground oats or ground corn, it greatly im- 
proves the ration for the young pig. If fed whole, it should 
be soaked for about twelve hours before feeding. 

Rye. — Rye is usually grown on poor soils where it or- 
dinarily yields better than other cereals. It is not a pop- 
ular feed because of its low yields and because it is an 
unsafe feed for some classes of live stock. The grain fre- 
quently carries ergot, a parasitic disease that may cause 
serious trouble, and even death. When mixed with other 
cereals it may be fed to fattening animals with good re- 
sults. Horses doing heavy, slow work keep in excellent 
condition on it. 

Emmer. — This cereal is a member of the wheat family. 
It has a heavier bran than wheat and because of this is 
more variable in its composition and feeding value. It 
will do better than some other cereals in regions of light 
rainfall. Large quantities are grown in the West, where it 
is used in place of oats for feeding all classes of live stock. 

ROOT CROPS 

Root crops are those crops that store most of their 
material in the roots. In European countries and also in 
Canada large quantities of roots are used as feeds for 
cattle, sheep, and horses. In the United States corn can 
be grown more cheaply. Corn silage makes a feed stuff 
equal in value to root crops at one half the cost. 



ROOT CROPS 47 

Root Crops High in Water. — Root crops are high in 
water content, which may vary from 80 per cent to 90 per 
cent. The dry matter in them is in feeding value equal 
to an equivalent weight of the best grains. Root crops 
may thus be considered as watered concentrates which 
are of great value in furnishing succulence to the ration 
of the animal. They also have a tonic effect not produced 
by other crops. Roots are usually sliced or pulped and fed 
alone or with the grain ration. In Scotland and England, 
they are sometimes pulped and mixed with cut straw or 
hay, and allowed to stand for some time before feeding. 

Roots Similar to Grass. — Roots are valuable for the 
breeding animal, the animal producing milk, and for grow- 
ing and fattening animals. The Utah Experiment Station 
reports as follows : " (1) The live weight gain for cattle 
and sheep was greater, and for hogs less, when fed on roots. 

(2) The dressed weight of cattle, sheep, and hogs showed 
in every case greater shrinkage for those fed on roots. 

(3) The root-fed animals contained more blood and neces- 
sarily more water in the blood. (4) The root-fed steers 
had heavier vital organs. (5) The fat was always less 
for the root-fed animals." The foregoing shows that the 
bodies of the root-fed animals are about the same as the 
bodies of animals that feed on grass, which is nature's 
ration and the one upon which the animals do best and 
keep in the best health. For animals that are to be fat- 
tened or fitted for show, roots are very valuable. 

Roots Commonly Used. — Some of the common roots 
for the dairy cow are the sugar beet, the rutabaga or swede, 
and the carrot. For beef cattle the mangel is usually pro- 
duced and for sheep the flat turnip is most commonly 
grown. Though sugar beets are hard to harvest they are 



48 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

excellent to add to the ration of the cow. Sugar beets 
are about equal to silage in feeding value but cost more 
to produce. Mangels are heavy yielders, and should be 
fed pulped or sliced. Rutabagas may taint the milk of 
cows, and should be fed after milking. Carrots are good 
for horses, especially for young horses. While potatoes 
are' low in yield compared with some of the other crops, 
small and otherwise unsalable potatoes may be fed sliced 
to cows, and cooked to pigs, with good results. 

Roots should be stored in a good root cellar and not 
allowed to freeze. Frozen roots should never be fed. 

CORN SILAGE AND ITS PREPARATION 

Although any green forage crop may be ensiled, expe- 
rience has taught that corn is the best crop for the silo. 

Filling the Silo. — The best time to cut corn for silage 
is when the kernels are well glazed, or about the same stage 
of growth that corn is usually cut for grain. When filling 
the silo, the material should be chopped with a silage cutter 
into bits about \ inch in length, and well tramped down, 
especially at the edges, in order to exclude the air. The 
maximum amount of silage can be stored in the silo if the 
material is allowed to settle a day or two after each day's 
filling. One of the approved modern methods of handling 
silage is to fill the silo as full as possible and then to seal 
it by planting on top of the silage, oats or other crop that, 
in growing, will form a mat which will exclude the air. 
After the silo is opened, there should be continuous feeding 
to prevent long exposure to the air, which will cause molds 
to grow, and result in poor feeding material. About two 
inches in depth of the silage should be fed each day. This 



CORN SILAGE 49 

means there should be a relationship between the exposed 
surface of the silage and the amount of feed used daily. 
Practically all silos are now made round, because the round 
silo has more volume for the same amount of building 
material, more uniform pressure throughout, and there are 
no corners in which it is difficult to pack the silage. 

How to Calculate the Capacity of a Silo. — A silo that is 
twice the diameter of another requires only twice the 
building material, but holds four times the amount of 
silage for each foot in height, and one that has three times 
the diameter, has nine times the capacity. In arranging 
the silo, it is a good rule to allow 35 or 40 pounds of silage 
daily per cow. In a silo 30 feet deep, each cubic foot of 
silage weighs about 40 pounds, and the average square foot 
of surface 2 inches thick about 7 pounds. It will then 
take about 6 square feet of surface 2 inches thick to supply 
one cow for one day. To supply a herd of 30 cows, it 
will take 30 X 6 square feet or 180 square feet, which will 
be furnished by a silo with a diameter of 15 feet. The 
silo 30 feet deep and 15 feet in diameter will supply silage 
for a period of 180 days for a herd of 30 cows, if each 
animal is fed 40 pounds of silage daily. 

Feeding Silage. — As a feed for the dairy cow in the corn 
belt silage is practically indispensable. It may be fed to 
young calves, but it must be remembered that corn silage 
is a feed low in protein and mineral matter and high in 
crude fiber. For calves it must be supplemented with feeds 
higher in protein. Silage may be fed to horses in limited 
amounts, but it is too watery to furnish a large proportion 
of the ration of working horses. Only the best quality of 
silage, free from molds, should ever be given to the horse. 
Sheep do well when silage forms part of the ration. 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 4 



50 CLASSES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

There is danger in feeding frozen silage. After it has 
thawed out it may be fed, but it spoils quickly after having 
been once frozen. Frosted corn makes good silage, but is 
drier than silage made from corn that has never been frozen. 
Since silage corn loses a great many of its leaves after being 
frosted, it should be cut, if possible, before frost comes. 

Manufacturers of condensed milk and Swiss cheese often 
contend that silage-fed milk makes a poor quality of these 
products. Scientific investigation has failed to show that 
there is anything in silage milk that makes it different from 
other milk. In some localities milk produced by silage- 
fed cows is accepted at condensaries. Owing to its high 
water content there is some danger of unsanitary conditions 
existing about barns where silage is used, but if properly 
handled and fed, silage produces a good quality of milk. 

EXERCISES 



i. Write a list of roughages in the order of feeding value. 
2. Arrange a list of concentrates in order of protein content. 

Make out a list of feeds that are high in oils. 

Write a classified list of seeds used as feeding stuffs. 

Is cottonseed worthy of special consideration as a feeding 
stuff ? Why? 

HOME PROJECT 

Assist in the preservation or preparation of feeding stuffs on 
the home farm. Keep a careful account of the processes in- 
volved, the expenses incurred, and the results obtained, in con- 
nection with at least one such feed. 



CHAPTER IV 

BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS 

By-product feeding stuffs are derived from various 
sources, such as the milling of grains, the manufacture of 
cereal foods, starch, sugar, glucose, the extraction of oils, 
the slaughter of animals, and the manufacture of butter 
and cheese. 

Wheat Bran. — This is the most widely used of all by- 
products and the one best known to the American farmer. 
The outside coats of the wheat grain are high in protein and 
mineral matter, principally phosphorus. In milling, these 
coats are removed. Bran is made up of these coats, and if 
of good quality, consists of large flakes, bright in color, 
and light in weight. It contains a high percentage of crude 
fiber which gives it bulk and makes it a light and safe 
feeding stuff. 

As a feed for farm animals it has a wide range of usefulness. 
For the dairy cow it is considered almost indispensable by 
some feeders because it furnishes the protein and mineral 
matter so essential to the production of milk. Its bulk, 
lightness, and laxative properties make it easily digested 
and help to keep the animal in a thrifty condition. For fat- 
tening steers it is sometimes too high in price to be used 
regularly unless fed in connection with corn, a combination 
that brings good results. For calves, bran is an excellent 
feed when fed with either oats or corn. 

51 



52 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS 

It is a good feed for horses also if fed with corn to 
add bulk to the heavy corn ration. Bran is often made 
into a mash and given to horses as a laxative. The practice 
of feeding this mash regularly, whether the animal needs 
it or not, is now looked upon with disfavor. 

For all classes of young and growing animals, bran is one 
of the safest and best of feeds. 

Wheat Middlings. — In the process of milling, after the 
bran is taken off, the next part that is removed is known as 
" middlings." This is the part of the kernel between the 
coarse bran and the finer flour beneath. Shorts and mid- 
dlings are terms used interchangeably. Middlings are high 
both in protein and mineral matter, being somewhat lower 
in the latter than bran. When middlings are clean and free 
from mill sweepings, they make an excellent feeding stuff, 
especially valuable for hogs when mixed with ground corn. 
They are not so good as bran for dairy cows. 

Red Dog, or Coarse Feeding Flour. — This material is finer 
and whiter than middlings, but does not command so high 
a price as flour because it contains many wheat germs which 
give to it a dark color. When this material can be bought 
for a reasonable figure, it is good feed for hogs if mixed 
with coarser feeding stuffs and fed in the form of a slop. 

Buckwheat Middlings and Bran. — In the manufacture 
of buckwheat flour, the coarse hulls and the coarser parts 
on the outside of the grain are separated from the finer flour 
beneath. Buckwheat middlings form a valuable feeding 
stuff. When they can be obtained free from woody hulls, 
they rank in value with wheat bran and middlings as a feed- 
ing stuff for dairy cattle. When the hulls are mixed with 
middlings, buckwheat bran is formed, the value of which is 
lessened as the proportion of hulls is increased. 



CEREAL FEEDS 53 

Screenings. — From the cleaning of the wheat before it 
is ground and from material swept from the mill floor, a 
by-product known as screenings is obtained. This ma- 
terial varies in feeding value according to the relative 
amount of grain and waste material which it contains. 
Large numbers of sheep are annually fattened upon screen- 
ings as part of their diet. 

Rice Bran. — In the milling of rice, the harsh outside hulls 
are removed, which, with some of the material adhering to 
them, form rice bran. The hulls themselves are valueless 
as a feed. The value of the bran depends upon the amount 
of rice meal it contains. The hulls are often ground fine 
and mixed with the meal so that their presence cannot be 
easily detected. In purchasing rice by-products one should 
always be guided by the chemical analysis. 

BY-PRODUCTS FROM THE MANUFACTURE OF 
CEREAL FOODS 

Oat Hulls. — In the manufacture of oatmeal the outside 
husk is removed. These hulls are high in crude fiber and 
have about the same feeding value as oat straw. They are 
often used to adulterate ground corn, in which combination 
they are put upon the market as ground corn and oats. 
While a great many of these so-called ground corn and oats 
mixtures are good feeds, many of them are too high in crude 
fiber to be of value. 

Barley Feeds. — Pearl barley is a cereal food made from 
the barley grain. For this purpose only the best of the 
grains are used from which the outside hulls are removed. 
These hulls are used to adulterate the poorer grains, unfit 
for pearling purposes, and the ground combination forms a 
barley feed. The hulls may also be mixed with other grains 



54 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS 

and the combination sold as mixed feeds. These barley 
feeds therefore vary greatly in feeding value. 

Hominy Feeds. — Hominy is made from corn. Only the 
best grains are used and these must grade up to a certain size. 
From the select grains the outside hulls and tips are removed. 
The coarse tips and seed coats and a great many small ker- 
nels are left as by-products. These materials are mixed 
together in various ways and sold under a great variety of 
trade names such as hominy chop, and hominy feed. Their 
feeding value is shown by chemical analysis. 

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM THE MANUFACTURE 
OF STARCH AND GLUCOSE 

Corn is used in the manufacture of starch and glucose. 
Since only the starch grains are desired by the manufac- 
turer, the by-product materials are made up of the hull, the 
tips, the germs, and the gluten portions of the corn kernel. 
The feeding stuffs thus obtained appear below. 

Corn Bran. — This material is made up of the outside 
layer of the corn grain and is removed in the earliest part of 
the starch-making process. It contains a high percentage of 
crude fiber and mineral matter. It does not equal wheat 
bran in feeding value, and is generally used to adulterate 
other by-products to form some of the so-called mixed feeds, 
sold under the names of sugar feeds and starch feeds. It is 
also used to mix with the gluten meal to form gluten feed. 

Germ Meal. — In another part of the starch-making 
process the germs of the corn are removed. These germs 
are ground and the oil is pressed out, leaving germ oil cake. 
This ground cake forms germ oil meal, a feeding stuff high 
in protein, mineral matter, and fat. It is valuable to mix 
with some of the coarser concentrates, but when left in stor- 



PULP FEEDS 55 

age for too long a period, it may become rancid and unpal- 
atable. 

Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed. — The gluten residue of 
the corn kernel is rich in protein. When this is ground it 
forms gluten meal which is almost too concentrated to feed 
alone. The manufacturer mixes corn bran with the meal 
and forms gluten feed, one of the best feeds for dairy cows. 
The feeding value of the gluten feed depends upon the 
amount of bran it contains. 

Sugar and Starch Feeds. — These are mixtures prepared 
in various ways from the by-products obtainable from starch 
and glucose factories. Their feeding values are variable, 
and in purchasing, the feeder should insist upon relatively 
high protein and low crude fiber content. 

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM THE MANUFACTURE 

OF SUGAR 

Ordinary sugar is made from sugar cane and sugar beets. 
Some of the by-products of the sugar industry are useful for 
feeding purposes. 

Beet Pulp. — In the manufacture of beet sugar there is 
a by-product known as beet pulp, consisting largely of crude 
fiber. It also contains a considerable amount of protein 
and mineral matter. In the wet form it is a wholesome and 
valuable feed for dairy and beef cattle. When fed in the 
open, in cold weather, care should be taken to prevent 
freezing. It should be fed in warm stables, and all feeding 
receptacles should be kept fresh and clean. In the imme- 
diate vicinity of beet sugar factories it is often stored in 
silos. Most of the beet pulp is dried, however, in which 
form it can be readily transported, and the danger of freez- 
ing and spoiling is reduced to a minimum. In the dried 



56 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS 

form the pulp can be stored the same as bran or any other 
dry feed. Dried pulp is a good feed for horses and sheep as 
well as for beef and dairy cattle. 

Molasses Feeds. — The liquid drawn off during the 
crystallization of sugar is known as molasses. The mo- 
lasses from sugar cane is sweet and palatable and makes a 
good feeding stuff. In the South, where this material is 
obtained in large quantities, it is fed freely to mules and is 
considered to have feeding value equal to corn. A great 
deal of black molasses is used for feeding beef cattle that 
are being fitted for show, and very good results are ob- 
tained from its use. 

Molasses obtained from the sugar beet is not so palatable 
as that obtained from the cane plant. It is often mixed 
with other feed stuffs and the mixtures are called molasses 
feeds. These feeds vary greatly in feeding value, depending 
upon the quality of the materials with which the molasses 
is mixed. Alfalfa is sometimes mixed with molasses. 
If the alfalfa is good the mixture is good, but it often 
happens that the alfalfa is poor and then the mixture is 
not so good as alfalfa hay, even though it does contain 
molasses and may cost more. Molasses is sometimes used 
to act as carrier and sweetener for practically worthless 
material. Purchasers of molasses mixtures should be care- 
ful to buy only those feeds whose feeding value is known. 

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM THE EXTRACTION 

OF OILS 

Some plants produce seeds high in oil of great commercial 
value. From flaxseed, linseed oil, used largely in the man- 
ufacture of paint, is obtained. This oil commands a high 
price and thus makes the manufacture of linseed oil a lucra- 



COTTONSEED FEEDS 



57 



tive industry. From the seed of the cotton plant is derived 
cottonseed oil, used in the manufacture of soaps and for 
other purposes. Commercial oils are also obtained from 
corn and peanuts. 

Flax, cotton, and peanut seeds are not only high in oil 
content but are also rich in protein and mineral matter. 
After the oil has been extracted from these seeds, the by- 
product materials form feeding substances that are the 
heaviest carriers of protein of all commercial feeds. 

Cottonseed Meal. — After the extraction of cottonseed 
oil the cake remaining is called cottonseed cake. If this 
cake is ground, cottonseed meal is formed. The cake is 
sometimes merely broken into nut form. 

Cottonseed cake or meal is one of the cheapest and best 
carriers of protein. It can be fed in limited amounts to 
all classes of animals. For the dairy cow it is a satisfactory 
feed and gives excellent results when fed in small amounts 




Fig. 16. — Fancy cuts of beef from animals whose feed contained cottonseed meal as 

the principal concentrate. 



in connection with a good grain ration. For feeding steers 
it is now conceded to be one of the best high protein feeds, 
when fed with corn as part of the ration. Cottonseed meal 
can be used to replace some of the grain in the ration of the 
horse with good results. In sheep feeding, cottonseed cake 
can be utilized and the fattening ration is often improved 
by introducing a limited amount of this feed. 



58 



BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS 



Cottonseed Poisoning. — Hogs have often been poisoned 
by being fed upon cottonseed meal. The usual advice 
given is not to feed cottonseed meal to hogs. Cattle have 
been known to go blind after having been fed upon this 
material for a ioo-day period, and in instances where fed 
too long death has ensued. 

Fed in limited amounts, cottonseed meal is a safe 
feed and should be more generally used. If fresh it has 




Fig. 17. — Cattle fed on shelled corn, linseed oil meal, shock corn, and clover hay. 

a bright yellow color. Old feed that has been long stored or 
that has been wet and become moldy should not be fed. 
From 2 to 4 pounds daily in the rations of either the dairy 
cow or the steer are perfectly safe amounts. 

Linseed Oil Meal. — There are two methods of extracting 
linseed oil from the seed of flax. In the old process, the oil 
is extracted by pressure, and in the new process, the oil is 
dissolved out by treating the ground flaxseed with naphtha. 



LINSEED FEEDS 59 

Most of the linseed oil now on the market is obtained by the 
old process, so that old process oil meal is the kind most 
in use as a stock feed. The new process extracts the oil 
somewhat more completely than does the old, so that the 
old process oil meal is somewhat higher in fat and slightly 
lower in protein content. In extracting the oil by the new 
process, however, the seed is heated by steam to drive off 
the naphtha. This heating lowers the digestibility of the 
protein so that the amount of digestible protein in the two 
feeds is nearly the same. Linseed meal is a valuable feed 
on any stock farm, but it is too rich and high priced to feed 
in large amounts. Its high content of protein makes it an 
excellent feed to add to rations low in this nutrient. Its 
high content of oil gives to it a mild laxative effect. 

For dairy cows, about ten per cent of linseed meal in the 
grain ration increases the flow of milk and improves the con- 
dition of the animal. For young calves a small amount of 
oil meal improves the quality of the ration. Breeding 
animals should receive a small amount of the feed in the 
ration. Animals that are being fitted for show or sale are 
given an added appearance of thrift and finish by the use of 
oil meal. A small amount of this feed will improve the 
rations of both sheep and hogs. 

BY-PRODUCT FEEDS FROM SLAUGHTERING 
OF ANIMALS 

The principal by-products of the great slaughtering 
houses furnished to the feeder of live stock are tankage, 
dried blood, and meat meal. These feeds are all rich in 
protein and some of them are high in mineral matter. 

Tankage. — Tankage is prepared by boiling down refuse 
material from slaughtered animals in order to secure the 



60 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS 

oil. After the oil has been removed the remaining material 
is dried so that it may be shipped, stored, and kept over 
long periods of time. The poorer grades of tankage are 
sold as fertilizer, and those portions that do not contain any 
of the refuse of the digestive tract are sold for feed stuffs. 
Tankage is especially valuable for feeding young pigs. 
It is so high in protein that it should not furnish more than 
10 per cent of the ration. It is an economical feed in spite 
of its high price. Farmers who have no skim milk to feed to 
young pigs should make large use of tankage. 

Blood Meal. — Dried blood meal is also very high in 
protein material and is valuable to add in small amounts 
to the ration of the pig and calf. Used sparingly it acts as 
a corrective of stomach disorders. 

Meat Meal. — Meat meal obtained from refuse scraps 
may be fed to advantage to young animals. Because of its 
richness it should be fed sparingly. All of the slaughter- 
house by-products that are sold as feed stuffs are so 
thoroughly sterilized by the high temperature to which they 
are subjected during the process of manufacture that no 
contagious diseases can be contracted from their use. 

BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS FROM THE DAIRY 

INDUSTRY 

Milk is nature's food for the young animal, and normal 
milk contains all the nutrients in correct proportions for 
its proper development. The nutrients in milk are highly 
digestible. The first milk secreted by the dam after the 
young animal has been born is called colostrum. It is high 
in protein and has a laxative effect upon the young animal, 
its purpose being to cleanse the digestive tract. After about 
five days the milk of the cow is in normal condition. 



DAIRY FEEDS 61 

Milk contains a sugar called milk sugar which has the 
same composition as cane sugar. 

The commercial value of cows' milk is generally estab- 
lished by its fat content, which may vary from 3 per cent 
or less to over 5 per cent. The fat content varies with 
individual animals, the stage of lactation, and the progress 
of the milking. The fat content of milk increases as the 
lactation period advances, and last drawn milk is richer 
in fat than first. 

At the present time butter fat commands such a high 
price that few people can afford to feed whole milk except 
in those rare cases where it is fed to choice young animals 
that are kept for breeding or show purposes. 

Skim Milk. — Milk from which the fat has been removed 
is proportionately higher in protein and ash than whole 
milk. It is valuable for rearing calves, and is the cheapest 
and most reliable feed for this purpose. It is one of the 
best feeds for young pigs. Five or six pounds of skim 
milk has the same feeding value as one pound of corn. 
Skim milk may also be fed to young colts after weaning 
with good results. 

Buttermilk. --Buttermilk is the by-product from butter 
manufacture. It has practically the same composition as 
skim milk, and if the material has not been too badly 
diluted, as is often done at creameries, it is equal to skim 
milk as a feed for pigs. 

Whey. --Whey is the by-product derived from cheese 
factories and it is only with difficulty that thrifty calves can 
be reared upon it. For pigs it has about half the feeding 
value of skim milk and should be fed in connection with a 
good grain ration. Whey should be fed fresh. If exposed 
to the sun in filthy tanks it is not suitable for feeding. 



62 BY-PRODUCT FEEDING STUFFS 

CONDIMENTAL STOCK FOODS 

Condimental stock foods are said by their manufac- 
turers to have peculiar medicinal properties not possessed 
by the common run of feeding stuffs. They contain small 
amounts of various drugs and herbs, which when properly 
given under the direction of a qualified veterinarian, 
produce good results with sick animals or those other- 
wise out of condition. 

The Value of Stock Foods. — Various experiments have 
been made with different stock foods upon all classes of 
farm animals at the several experiment stations, and in 
no instance have these foods equaled the claims made for 
them. Gains made upon rations containing these materials 
were always more expensive than those made upon rations 
that did not contain them. 

If animals need condiments, stimulants, or condition 
powders, which is seldom the case if they are properly fed, 
it is better to consult a competent veterinarian than to 
resort to the use of expensive cure-alls. 

EXERCISES 

i. Make out a list of high protein by-product feeds. 

2. What by-product feeds need to be purchased with caution 
on account of great variation in their feeding value ? 

3. Why may not roots form the bulk of a ration? 

4. What combination of feeds would make an ideal ration 
for horses? For milk cows? For pigs? 

HOME PROJECT 

Test one of the combinations of feeds on some of the animals 
at home, keeping accurate record of cost and results. 



CHAPTER V 

HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 

Rations. — A ration is the amount of feed given to an' 
animal in twenty-four hours, irrespective of the time of 
feeding or into how many portions this feed is divided. 
A balanced ration is one that supplies protein, carbo- 
hydrates, and fats in the proper amounts and proportions 
so that there is neither excess nor deficiency. A mainte- 
nance ration is one that will, keep an animal at constant 
weight. 

Feeding for Maintenance. — Feeding for maintenance 
means feeding so that the animal will neither gain nor lose 
in weight. The maintenance ration should furnish ma- 
terial sufficient to repair broken down tissue; should 
supply energy for carrying on the vital functions, such as 
breathing, digestion, absorption, and assimilation; and 
should produce sufficient heat for the animal body. 

Roughages Preferred for Maintenance. — As a rule, 
roughages are more economical for maintenance rations 
than are concentrates. If the animal is doing no work 
there is not much breaking down of tissue, but the normal 
heat of the body must be maintained. Idle horses 
and cattle are more economically maintained on a 
ration consisting mostly of coarse roughages than on less 
bulky but more expensive concentrates. The ration does 
not need to contain a great deal of protein to supply the 

63 



64 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 

demands of the mature animal at rest, and the bulkier 
carbohydrates furnish sufficient heat. 

Relation of Size to Maintenance. — For animals of the 
same age, class, type, and kind, the larger the animal, the 
larger must be the maintenance ration. The protein re- 
quirements vary directly with the weight of the animal, 
because the muscular tissue varies directly with the 
weight. The most of the heat produced in the animal 
body comes from the carbohydrates and fats in the feed 
stuff and escapes from the surface of the body. A large 
animal has proportionally less body surface than a smaller 
animal of the same class and type. The large animal 
thus requires somewhat less carbohydrate and fat ma- 
terial in proportion to its weight than does the small 
animal of the same type. 

Other Factors in Maintenance. — The fat animal re- 
quires a higher maintenance ration than the thin animal 
because it carries greater weight, and added weight re- 
quires added energy to move it about. Under ordinary 
conditions, the higher the external temperature, the 
smaller the maintenance ration, because there is less 
radiation of heat from the body surface. Nervous 
animals are harder to maintain than quiet ones. Animals 
also vary in their capacities to digest and assimilate 
food. Other things being equal, animals of the same 
general type make about the same comparative uses of 
the feed given to them, regardless of the breed to which 
they belong. It is practically impossible to keep a young 
animal at constant weight during its period of growth. 

Feeding for Meat Production. — Feeding for meat pro- 
duction accomplishes two ends, growth and fattening. 
Growth prepares the framework and fattening increases 



MEAT PRODUCTION 



65 



the weight and improves the quality of flesh, making the 
meat more juicy, tender, and nutritious. 

Growth and Fattening. — During growth, the muscular 
fibers increase in number, length, and thickness. The 




Fig. 18. — Cuts of pork from pigs fed rations rich in proteins. These cuts have less 
fat than those shown in Fig. 19. 

skeleton and all the organs of the body increase in size 
and capacity to do work. In fattening there may be a 
slight growth in the muscular tissues, but during the fat- 
tening process the greater part of the gain in weight is 
due to an increase in the amount of fatty tissue. Fat is 




Fig. 19. — Cuts of pork from pigs fed fat-producing foods. 

deposited between the muscular fibers and the layers of 
muscle, beneath the skin of the animal and around the 
internal organs. 

The quantity, quality, and palatability of the feed has 
much to do with the amount of fat deposited upon the 
animal's body. Only that over and above maintenance 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 5 



66 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 

requirements is used for making fat. An older animal 
will fatten more readily than will a young one, because 
the young animal grows, while the old one only lays on 
fat. The quiet animal fattens more readily than the nerv- 
ous, restless animal, because less of the food is wasted 
in needless exercise. The breed of an animal has little ef- 
fect upon fattening quality, but the type has an important 
bearing upon the quality of meat produced. If the climate 
is very cold, shelter from strong cold winds is an aid in 
fattening, as less food will be required to keep the body 
warm. Thrifty steers can stand steady cold weather and 
fatten better than in weather so warm as to cause loss 
of appetite. The hog, having a lighter coat and taking 
less exercise, needs greater protection from the cold than 
does the steer. 

Effect of Water, Light, and Air. — The fattening animal 
should have free access to an abundance of good, pure, and 
fresh water. Water helps to regulate the temperature of 
the animal body and is necessary to carry on the increased 
activity in the life processes due to fattening. Sunlight is 
necessary to the growing animal, in order that its body 
and organs may develop normally. For a brief period 
an animal will fatten more rapidly and cheaply in dark 
quarters than in light, although light is essential to health. 
Darkened quarters prevent annoyance from flies and keep 
the animal in a quieter condition. They fatten better 
when quietness prevails. Regularity in time of feeding 
and the amount and kind of feed given are also important 
factors. If changes, either in the feed or in the conditions 
surrounding the animals are to be made, they should be 
made gradually. A changing period under any circum- 
stances is always a losing period. 



ECONOMICAL USE OF FOOD 67 

Feeding for Milk Production. — Feeding for the pro- 
duction of milk differs from feeding for the production of 
body fat. The ration for fat production needs to supply 
only sufficient protein and mineral matter to repair waste 
and build up a small amount of new tissue. The bulk of 
the body fat is built up from the carbohydrate and fat ma- 
terial in the ration in excess of the amount necessary for 
maintenance. On the other hand, in the production of 
milk there is the constant need for protein and mineral 
matter in the milk which the cow secretes. Considerable 
protein and mineral matter are therefore necessary in 
the ration to supply the demands of the milk-producing 
animal. 

The Dairy Cow an Economical Food Producer. — The 
dairy cow makes the most economical use of the food given 
her. The constant outlet of milk prevents her system 
from becoming clogged, as in the case of the steer deposit- 
ing fat. There is perhaps more variation in the ability 
of different cows to produce milk than in the ability of 
steers to lay on fat. Several factors cause a variation in 
the cost of producing milk. In the same herd one cow may 
make a good profit, while another, under the same con- 
ditions, may show actual loss. While a competent judge 
may be able to determine quite accurately from external 
appearances the fattening qualities of a steer, only an ap- 
proximation of the ability of the cow to produce milk can 
be so made. 

Care as Essential as Feed. — The amount and character 
of feed given is a large factor in milk production. Cows 
that are expected to produce heavily must be liberally fed. 
The ration of the cow should be palatable and contain a 
liberal supply of protein and mineral matter. 



68 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 

While exercise requires more feed, a certain amount of 
exercise is necessary to keep the animal in good physical 
condition. The dairy cow requires a higher and more uni- 
form temperature than the beef animal because she has 
no protecting layer of fat. The skin and hair of the dairy 
cow are also thinner than on beef animals. Milk secretion 
is controlled by the nervous system of the animal, and 
any shock to the nervous system such as that resulting 
from exposure to cold cuts down milk production. 

Importance of Water. — Dairy cows require large quan- 
tities of water, because milk contains about 87 per cent of 
water. More water is also necessary to regulate the heat 
of the body. The dry cow requires only about 65 per cent 
as much water as the cow giving milk. The water supply 
should be fresh, pure, and easily accessible. Some cow 
stables are now equipped with drinking cups so that with- 
out effort the cows can obtain drinking water at will. 

Feeding for Work Production. — Within certain limits, 
the working capacity of the animal depends upon the 
amount of food consumed over and above the amount 
necessary for maintenance. Rations for work animals 
should be such as will furnish the greatest amount of 
energy. Concentrated feeds rich in digestible nutrients 
supply this in most convenient form. Bulky feeds that 
require a great deal of energy to digest leave but little 
excess to be utilized in doing work. 

Nutritive Ratio. — The nutritive ratio is the ratio that 
exists between the sum of the digestible fats and carbohy- 
drates and the digestible protein in the ration or feeding 
stuff. The nutritive ratio is found by multiplying the 
digestible fat by 2^, adding the product to the digestible 
carbohydrate material, and dividing the sum by the 



RATION OF THE YOUNG ANIMAL 69 

amount of digestible protein. The quotient derived will 
be the second term of the ratio of which the first term is 1. 
For example, dent corn contains 7.8 pounds of di- 
gestible protein, 66.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, 
and 4.3 pounds of digestible fat in each 100 pounds. The 
nutritive ratio of dent corn is found in the following way : 

4 '^ — 1-i — i_ = q.8. The nutritive ratio of corn is then 

7.8 

said to be 1 : 9.8. 

Rations that are relatively rich in protein are called 
narrow rations and those that are poor in protein are called 
wide rations. Cottonseed meal has the narrow nutritive 
ratio of 1 : 1. 14; rye straw has the wide ratio of 1 : 57.8; 
and oats has the medium nutritive ratio of 1 : 5.49. 

How Rations should Vary. — Youth is the period of the 
animal's life when normal development and growth take 
place. To secure the maximum growth the ration of the 
young animal should supply sufficient quantities of protein 
and mineral matter. 

The mature animal does not need such a high propor- 
tion of protein and mineral matter in its ration, because 
growth is complete. Sufficient protein to repair waste is 
all that is essential. Because carbohydrate and fat ma- 
terials are cheaper than are protein and mineral matter, 
it is more economical to feed the mature animal a wider 
ration than that fed to the young animal. 

The Needs of the Young Animal. — In the corn belt 
young animals are often raised to maturity on rations de- 
ficient in protein and mineral matter. Young pigs suffer 
most from this lack. The rations of calves usually con- 
tain roughage materials higher in mineral content. Lime 
and phosphorus are the mineral constituents needed in 



70 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 

large amounts by young animals. These substances may 
be supplied by feeding such feeds as alfalfa and clover 
which are high in lime, and bran and middlings which are 
high in phosphorus, or feeding ground rock phosphate, bone 
ash, and calcium phosphate in mineral forms. Charcoal 
is valuable for hogs and should be supplied to them in a 
trough mixed with salt. Common salt is a mineral sub- 
stance which all animals crave and free access to it should 
be allowed. 

Young ruminants need roughage. Frequent attempts 
have been made to raise calves to maturity on purely 
concentrated rations, but without success. Non-ruminants 
may grow to maturity on concentrated feeds alone. 

Experiments have proven that milk with a medium 
amount of fat is better for young animals than milk that 
is abnormally high in fat. The milk of the average cow 
has only a medium fat content, and the calf grows and 
does well on it. Some of our special dairy breeds have 
been developed to produce milk rich in fat, but the mineral 
and protein materials are not correspondingly high, and 
calves do not thrive so well when fed on such milk. 

Feeding Standards. — It is not long since the feeding 
of animals was considered little more than the work of a 
common artisan. Cows, sheep, and horses were either al- 
lowed to graze the range or were given feeds at hand with- 
out thought as to their value. At the beginning of the 
last century, science invaded this field and live stock feed- 
ing became a science as well as an art. In time, standards 
were formulated setting forth the feed requirements of 
different classes of animals kept under different conditions. 
The first standard appeared in 1810, and consisted of a 
table in which were shown the amounts of different feeding 



FEEDING STANDARDS 71 

stuffs necessary to furnish the equivalent feeding value 
of 100 pounds of meadow hay. The next standard of im- 
portance was based upon the total amounts of protein, 
carbohydrates, and fats in the feed stuffs. 

The Wolff Standards. — The feeding standards of Dr. 
Emil von Wolff, a German scientist, are based upon the 
amounts of digestible protein, carbohydrate, and fat ma- 
terial required by various farm animals under different 
conditions. The first presentation of these standards was 
made in 1864, and they appeared for the first time in 
America in 1874. These standards are now called the 
Wolff-Lehmann standards because of the assistance of 
Dr. C. Lehmann, a pupil of Wolff, in presenting them to 
the public. The Wolff-Lehmann standards are widely 
used because they are positive and easily understood. 

Calculating Rations by the Use of Feeding Standards. — 
It is practically impossible to get any one feed stuff that 
will supply all nutrients in the amounts and proportions 
that will properly nourish the animal without deficiency 
or waste. Some of our feed stuffs are high in protein. 
The use of such a feed alone would cause a waste of protein. 
Other feeds are high in carbohydrates and fat. To get 
the required amount of protein from such a feed would 
necessitate the loss of non-protein material. If the feeds 
are introduced into the rations in the proper proportions, 
the deficiency of protein in one feed will be counterbal- 
anced by the excess in another, and a properly balanced 
ration will result. 

A proper mixture of feeds always gives better results than 
any single feed. Palatability and adaptability to the animal 
are also good qualities. A certain amount of succulent feed 
should be introduced into a ration as an aid to digestion. 



72 



HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 



The following table sets forth the number of pounds of 
total dry matter, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and 
fat necessary for various farm animals. 

WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS MODIFIED 













Pounds per Day 


PER IOOO 


Lb. Live Weight 


Animal 




Digestible Nutrients 




flnv 










J-'K x 

Matter 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio: i 


Oxen 












At rest 


18 


0.7 


8.0 


O.I 


11.8 


At heavy work . 






28 


2.8 


13.O 


0.8 


5-3 


Dairy Cows 
















ii lb. of milk daily 






25 


1.6 


10.0 


0.3 


6.7 


22 lb. of milk daily 






29 


2-5 


13.0 


0.5 


6.0 


Horses 
















Light work . . 






20 


1-5 


9-5 


0.4 


7.0 


Heavy work 










26 


2-5 


13-3 


0.8 


6.0 


Breeding Ewes 




















With lambs 










25 


2.9 


15.0 


0.5 


5-6 


Brood Sows . 










22 


2-5 


15-5 


0.4 


6.6 


Fattening Cattle 




















First period 










30 


2.5 


15.0 


0.5 


6-5 


Last period 










26 


2.7 


15.0 


0.7 


6.2 


Fattening Swine 




















First period 










36 


4-5 


25.0 


0.7 


5-9 


Last period 










25 


2.7 


18.0 


0.4 


7.0 


Growing Cattle 




















Young calves 










23 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


4-5 


Yearlings . 










27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


6.8 


Growing Sheep 




















Young lambs 










26 


4-4 


15-5 


0.9 


4.0 


Yearlings . 










23 


2.2 


12.6 


o.5 


6-3 


Growing Pigs 


















At weaning time 








44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.9 


4.0 


At 8 mos. age . 








30 


3-6 


20.5 


0.4 


6.0 



It will be noted that the standards are made for 1000 
pounds live weight of the animal, and call for material 



PLANNING A RATION 73 

sufficient for twenty-four hours. If animals are heavier 
in weight, the standard can be changed to vary in direct 
proportion to the live weight of the animal; the 1100 
pound animal requiring 10 per cent more and the 900 
pound animal requiring 10 per cent less than the amount 
given in the table. The 250 pound hog will require \ of the 
amounts set forth in the standard. In the Appendix will 
be found the number of pounds of total dry matter, di- 
gestible protein, carbohydrates, and fats in feed stuffs. 
If the feeds are combined so that the sum of the nutrients 
they furnish in combination corresponds to the number 
of pounds called for in the standard, the ration will be 
balanced according to the standard. 

Figuring a Ration. — To plan a ration for a 1000 pound 
steer at rest, first find the requirements according to the 
standard used. The Wolff-Lehmann standard calls for 
18 pounds of total dry matter, 0.7 pound of digestible 
protein, 8.0 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 
pound of digestible fats in the ration. The nutritive ratio 
of the mixture should be 1 : 11.8, which is wide, because 
the steer at rest needs little protein but requires considerable 
heat-making food to maintain the temperature of the body. 
Roughage is better for this purpose than are concentrates. 

Assuming that timothy hay and oat straw are both 
available, 10 pounds of each can be taken as a trial ration. 
The Appendix tables show that in 100 pounds of timothy 
hay there are 86.8 pounds of dry matter, 2.8 pounds of 
digestible protein, 42.4 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, 
and 1.3 pounds of digestible fats. In 10 pounds of timothy 
hay there will be iV of those amounts, or 8.68 pounds of 
dry matter, 0.28 pound of digestible protein, 4.24 pounds 
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.13 pound of digestible 



74 



HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 



fats. In like manner it will be found that 10 pounds of 
oat straw will furnish 9.08 pounds of dry matter, 0.13 
pound of digestible protein, 3.95 pounds of digestible 
carbohydrates, and 0.08 pound of digestible fats. 

For the purpose of comparison, these facts are tabulated 

as follows : 

Ration for 1000 Pound Steer at Rest 
First trial ration 





Dry 
Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


Feeding Stuffs 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fats 


10 pounds timothy hay 
10 pounds oat straw . . . 
Sum of first trial ration 
Wolff-Lehmann standard . 
Excess or deficit .... 


lb. 

8.68 

9.08 

17.76 

18.00 

—0.24 


lb. 
0.28 

0.13 
0.41 
0.7 
— 0.29 


lb. 

4.24 

3-95 

8.19 

8.00 

+0.19 


lb. 

0.13 
0.08 
0.21 
0.10 
+0.1 1 


1 : 20.6 
1 : 11. 8 



The first trial ration is low in dry matter, very low in 
protein, and high in carbohydrates and fats. Some feed that 
is high in digestible protein and low in non-protein material 
must be found to balance the ration. New-process lin- 
seed oil meal is such a feed. If one pound of this meal be 
added, the second trial ration will appear as follows : 

Second trial ration 





Dry 

Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


Feeding Stuffs 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fats 


First trial ration .... 
New-process linseed meal, 

ilb 

Second trial ration . . . 
Wolff-Lehmann standard . 
Excess or deficit .... 


lb. 
17.76 

0.91 

18.67 

18.00 

+0.67 


lb. 
0.410 

0.315 

0.725 

0.700 

+0.025 


lb. 

8.190 

0-357 

8-547 

8.000 

+0.547 


lb. 
0.210 

0.024 
O.234 

O.IOO 

+0.134 


1 : 12.5 
1: 11. 8 



TRIAL RATION 



75 



The addition of i pound of new-process oil meal makes 
the second trial ration too high in all nutrients, — the ex- 
cess being most noticeable in digestible carbohydrates and 
fats. If two pounds of oat straw are deducted, the third 
trial ration appears as follows : 

Third trial ration 







Digestible Nutrients 






Dry 

Matter 






Nutritive 
Ratio 


Feeding Stuffs 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fats 




lb. 


lb. 


lb. 


lb. 




Second trial ration . . . 


18.670 


0.725 


8.547 


O.234 




Oat straw (deducted), 2 lb. 


1. 816 


0.026 


0. 790 


0.016 




Third trial ration .... 


16.854 


0.699 


7-757 


0.218 


1 : 11. 8 


Wolfl-Lehmann standard . 


18.000 


0.700 


8.000 


O.IOO 


1 : 1 1.8 


Excess or deficit .... 


— 1. 146 


— O.OOI 


-0.243 


+0.118 





The third trial ration falls below the standard by 1.146 
pounds of dry matter, which is unimportant; 0.001 pound 
of digestible protein, which is insignificant; and 0.243 
pound of digestible carbohydrates, which is offset by an 
excess of o. 118 pound of digestible fat. 

Thus a satisfactory ration for a 1000 pound steer at 
rest might consist of 10 pounds of timothy hay, 8 pounds 
of oat straw, and 1 pound of new-process oil-meal. 

It is practically impossible to keep the fat of the ration 
as low as the standard requirements, but since carbo- 
hydrate and fat material are both sources of energy and 
fat for the animal, these two nutrients may interchange 
in the ration. So long as the protein supplied in the ra- 
tion is near to the requirements of the standard and the 
nutritive ratio of the ration is close to that of the standard, 
it matters little if the fat content is high. Neither is it so 



7 6 



HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 



important to keep the dry matter requirements up to the 
standard, since it is the digestible parts of the ration, 
rather than the total of its constituents, that is of greatest 
importance. 

Suppose a ration is required for a cow weighing 900 
pounds, and producing 16.6 pounds of milk daily. The 
standard for the 1000 pound cow producing 16.6 pounds 
of milk daily, calls for 27 pounds of dry matter, 2.0 pounds 
of digestible protein, 11.0 pounds of digestible carbohy- 
drates, and 0.4 pound of digestible fats. The 900 pound 
cow will require nine tenths as much or 24.3 pounds of dry 
matter, 1.8 pounds of digestible protein, 9.9 pounds of di- 
gestible carbohydrates, and 0.36 pound of digestible fats. 

Assuming that there are available for feeding, corn silage, 
red clover hay, wheat bran, and ground oats, the follow- 
ing amounts may be selected for a trial ration : 20 pounds 
of silage, 10 pounds of clover hay, 5 pounds of bran, and 
2 pounds of ground oats. Tabulating these materials, as 
was done in the case of figuring the ration for the steer, the 
results appear as follows : 

Trial Ration for a 900 Lb. Cow Producing 16.6 Lb. of Milk Daily 





Dry 

Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


Feeding Stuffs 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fats 


Roughages 

Corn silage, 20 lb. 

Clover hay, 10 lb. 
Concentrates 

Wheat bran, 5 lb. . 

Ground oats, 2 lb. 


[lb. 

5.2S0 
8.470 

4-405 
1.760 


lb. 

0.280 
0.710 

o.595 
0.202 


lb. 

2.840 
3.780 

2.100 
1.050 


lb. 
0.014 
0.180 

0.125 
0.740 




Trial ration . . . 
Standard .... 


19-9*5 

24-3 


1.787 
1.800 


9.770 

Q.QOO 


0.3930 
0.3600 


1 : 5.96 
1:6 


Excess or deficit . . 


-4.335 


-0.013 


— O.23OO 


+0.0330 





FIGURING RATIONS 77 

This ration is quite near the standard in all nutrients 
and the nutritive ratio is about the same as that of the 
standard. According to the standard, a ration consisting 
of the above feeds in the amounts given would be suitable 
for the 900 pound cow producing 16.6 pounds of milk daily. 

Helpful Rules in Figuring Rations. — A few simple rules 
are of value in calculating rations. The average ration of 
the average dairy cow is about as follows : 24 to 40 pounds 
of silage, 6 to 10 pounds of hay, and 1 pound of grain mix- 
ture daily for each pound of butter fat produced weekly, 
or 1 pound of grain mixture for every 3 or 4 pounds of milk 
produced. The nutritive ratio of this ration is between 
1 : 6 and 1:7. 

A 1000 pound fattening steer will require about 15 pounds 
of grain mixture or about 18 to 20 pounds of corn on the 
cob, 15 to 20 pounds of corn silage, and 6 to 10 pounds of 
alfalfa or clover hay. A rule for feeding horses is to 
supply about 1 pound of hay daily for each 100 pounds of 
live weight. The horse on light work should receive about 
1 pound of grain to each 100 pounds of live weight and the 
horse at heavy work should receive one third to one half 
more to keep it in good flesh. In the Haecker standard, 
in the Appendix, the 1000 pound cow requires for main- 
tenance, independently of the milk produced, 0.7 pound 
of digestible protein, 7.0 pounds of digestible carbohydrate 
material, and 0.1 pound of digestible fat. For each 100 
pounds that the cow weighs more than 1000 pounds, the 
maintenance standard is increased by one tenth, and for 
each 100 pounds that the cow weighs less than 1000 pounds, 
one tenth is deducted. To the maintenance requirements 
are added the amounts necessary to produce the required 
amount of milk of a certain richness in fat, and the same 



78 HOW THE ANIMAL USES ITS FEED 

method of finding the amounts of the various feed stuffs 
is followed, as in the case of calculating for the Wolff- 
Lehmann standards. 

EXERCISES 

i. Calculate a ration for a 250 lb. pig, using the Wolff-Leh- 
mann standards. 

2. Calculate the nutritive ratio of the various rations fed on 
the home farm. 

3. Compound a better ration in each case if the home rations 
are deficient or expensive. 

4. By the use of the Haecker table calculate a ration, using 
home-grown feeds, for a 1 200 lb. Holstein cow giving 40 lbs. of 
3.5 per cent milk daily. 

HOME PROJECT 

Try out for at least one month's time on the home farm 
some new ration that you have calculated, keeping accurate 
account of results. 



CHAPTER VI 

BREEDS OF HORSES 

Breed is a term applied to a group of animals homoge- 
neous in blood, possessing certain well-defined characters, 
which are uniformly transmitted by inheritance ; and 
whose records are kept by a duly authorized association. 

Type is a term that designates the use to which an 
animal is adapted. In each class of live stock there are dif- 
ferent types evolved by the special use made of the animals 
during the development of the breeds. Thus, under the 
term " beef type " are included animals especially adapted 
to the production of beef. To the " dairy type " belong 
animals suited for the production of milk. 

The breeds of horses are classified according to type or 
use. There are certain breeds of horses which are better 
suited for certain purposes than other breeds. The Per- 
cheron horse is better adapted for pulling heavy loads than 
the thoroughbred. The latter has been developed for speed, 
and for this purpose is much better than the Percheron. 

CLASSIFICATION OF HORSES 

According to type, horses are classified as draft horses, 
coach horses, saddle horses, roadsters, and ponies. Mules 
and asses are given a separate classification. 

The breeds of draft horses are Percheron, Belgian, Clydes- 
dale, Shire, and Suffolk Punch. 

79 



8o 



BREEDS OF HORSES 




PERCHERON HORSE 8 1 

The breeds of coach, or carriage, horses are Hackney, 
French Coach, German Coach, Cleveland* Bay, and off- 
shoots therefrom. 

Breeds of horses belonging to the roadster type are 
American Trotter and Pacer, Arabian horse, and Thorough- 
bred. 

Included among ponies are the American ponies, which 
comprise Indian ponies, mustangs, and bronchos ; Shetland 
ponies, Welsh ponies, and Hackney ponies. 

According to the use to which they are put, mules 
are classified as plantation or sugar mules, lumber mules, 
railroad mules, levee mules, and mine mules. 

THE PERCHERON HORSE 

Percheron horses are the most popular and widely distrib- 
uted of all the draft breeds in America to-day. They orig- 
inated in the district or province of La Perche, located in 
the north-central part of France. In the early history of 
France, along about the eighth century, horses were used 
a great deal in war, and the French drew freely for breed- 
ing purposes upon the Arabian horses which they cap- 
tured from the Saracens whom they defeated in 732 a.d. 
War as fought in those days demanded active, strong, and 
rather heavy horses. Such horses had been developed 
by the nomadic Arabs and were selected for use in France. 
These Arabian fusions were practiced until about a century 
ago, when a demand for large, active, strong horses arose in 
France to be used not for war but on the heavy omnibuses 
in the cities, and for farm work in the country. These 
horses were strong, powerful, and active, somewhat rangy in 
conformation, but well muscled. When railroads became 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 6 



82 BREEDS OF HORSES 

common and the use of street cars and motor buses sup- 
planted the horse-drawn vehicles there arose a new de- 
mand for heavy draft horses. The American trade which 
called for strong, heavy animals has had much to do with 
developing the Percheron draft horse. 

The country in which these horses originated is fertile, 
the climate is mild and furnishes ideal conditions for the 
rearing of good horses. The French government has also 
helped to improve the horses of the nation by inspecting 
them, keeping the good animals in the country and subsi- 
dizing the best ones for breeding purposes. 

The first importation of Percherons to this country was 
made in 1839 into the state of New Jersey. In 1851, the 
horse " Louis Napoleon " was imported and found his 
way to Illinois, where it is said he became the sire of over 
400 colts whose good qualities helped to advertise these 
horses and make them popular with farmers. 

Characteristics. — The prevailing colors of the Per- 
cheron are gray and black. Some bays and browns occur, 
but they are less popular and common than the two above 
named. Formerly the imported horses were not so heavy 
as the type now popular, and more grays than blacks were 
brought into the country. The Percheron type is that of 
a strong, well-muscled, thick-bodied, clean-boned, low- 
set draft horse. The good Percheron is noted for the size 
and quality of its feet ; well-muscled arms, forearms, gas- 
kins and thighs ; clean, hard, flinty cannon bones, free from 
superfluous hair ; strong, deep, and wide chest ; short, wide 
back ; strong, well-breasted neck ; and a good head carrying 
neat ears and bold, clear eyes. The action is free, bold, and 
straightforward, showing vitality and vigor in the horse. 
Some of the too common weaknesses are tendencies to 



PERCHERON HORSE 83 

droop at the croup, sickling at the hocks which may have a 
tendency to fill, and somewhat short and steep pasterns, 
giving the horse a " stilty " gait. There is also a tendency 
to be too rangy, which is not desired when one wishes to 
grade upa " blocky " lot of horses. 




Fig. 21. — Percheron horse. 

The Percheron is very prepotent and his ability to trans- 
mit his good qualities to his progeny has made this horse 
popular throughout the country. The absence of hair, 
which is liable to gather mud and snow, around the fetlocks 
and on the cannon bones has made this breed a favored 
one with farmers, and their weight and size, together with 
the good quality of their feet, have made these horses good 
sellers in the cities. 



84 BREEDS OF HORSES 

THE BELGIAN HORSE 

History. — Belgian horses were first imported into 
America from Belgium about 1886. Because of their 
size, compactness, early maturing qualities, strength, and 
quiet disposition, they have met with much favor at the 
hands of American farmers. The history of their origin has 
been rather obscure, although it is known that draft horses 
have been produced in this section of Europe for centuries, 
and horses from Belgium have played an important part in 
the improvement of other European draft breeds. 

They are said to be a product of the environment in which 
they developed, so that few men stand out prominently as 
improvers of the breed. Since about 1850, the government 
of Belgium has done much through subsidies to encourage 
the producers of these horses, and to keep the best ones 
in the country. More males than females are brought to 
America, most of the females being kept in Belgium or 
sold to Germany, where Belgian horses are also well liked. 

Characteristics. — These horses are very compact, being 
the heaviest breed of horses for their apparent size. The 
body is short and round with well-sprung ribs, and set upon 
short legs. The principal colors are sorrel, chestnut, roan, 
bay, and black. Grays are quite uncommon. The breast 
is wide and the limbs are muscular. The objections 
to the breed are a tendency to meatiness in the re- 
gion of the joints and roundness of hocks and can- 
non bones. The pasterns are often too short and steep, 
and a common criticism is that the feet, although of good 
material, are too small in circumference at the hoof head 
and too high at the heel. These combined defects often 
lead to poor action and a stumbly gait. 



CLYDESDALE HORSE 



85 



Mature males should weigh 2000 pounds and mature 
females at least 1600 pounds each. 

THE CLYDESDALE HORSE 

History. — Clydesdale horses, of pure Scotch origin, and 
the favorite horses in Scotland, are found in all parts of the 
world where Scotchmen live. They are produced in largest 
numbers at present in southwestern Scotland, although good 
Clydesdales are bred in England, in Australia, in Canada, 
and in the United States. 

In developing these horses, there are certain prominent 
characteristics for which the Scotchmen have firmly stood, 
and these features are the principal ones for which the 
Clydesdale horse is noted. Males of the proper proportions 




Fig. 22. — Clydesdale horse. 



86 BREEDS OF HORSES 

should weigh as much as 2000 pounds, and the females 
should weigh at least 1600 pounds when mature. 

Characteristics. — These horses have been selected for 
their true and snappy action, excellent conformation and 
quality of feet, pasterns, and limbs. The best Clydesdales 
have large feet with open hoof heads and liberal width at 
the heels; the pasterns are long and sloping; the cannon 
bones are clean, hard, and supported by strong well-defined 
tendons. The feather or hair that grows back of the can- 
non bones is fine, denoting quality. The hock joint is 
usually well set and clean, and the knees are large, straight, 
and flat. The thighs and quarters are strong, and the arm 
and forearm are well muscled. They have gently sloping 
shoulders and are high at the withers. 

The body is somewhat rangier than that of the Belgian 
or Percheron. The Clydesdales are excellent draft horses 
and good types sell well ; but they have not met with the 
favor on the market that the Percherons enjoy, because 
they lack compactness of form. American farmers who 
have used the Clydesdale horse object to the hairy legs, 
which gather mud and snow, and are thus hard to keep 
clean ; and the market does not favor pasterns that slope 
extremely. 

In America, they were first imported to Canada in 1842, 
where they are found to-day in greater numbers than in 
the United States. Their continued use has greatly im- 
proved Canadian horses. 

The favorite and commonest color of the Clydesdale is 
bay with perhaps one or more white feet and cannon bones, 
and a white star on the forehead or white strip in the face. 
Black, gray, and chestnut colors are also found, but they 
are not encouraged in fancy breeding. 



SHIRE HORSE 



87 



THE SHIRE HORSE 

The Shire horses are the most popular draft horses in 
England. They have become general in city use in that 
country because of their great weight and strength. 

They have developed and are now bred mostly in the low 
flat lands of England, where the soil is rich, climate moist, 
and vegetation abundant. 

Although much valued in England, both in the cities 
and on the farms, and used to a large extent in continental 




Fig. 23. — Shire horse. 

Europe and in Australia, they have not met with general 
favor in America, because of the abundant growth of hair 
on their legs, to which our farmers object. 

Some people have difficulty in distinguishing between 
the Shire and the Clydesdale breeds. While bay is the pre- 



88 BREEDS OF HORSES 

vailing color in both breeds, and both have hairy legs, the 
body of the Shire is much more compact, the legs much 
rounder and meatier, and the hair, skin, bones, and feet 
much coarser in quality. The pasterns and shoulders of 
the Shire are steeper and the action is less rapid, true, and 
snappy than in the Clydesdale. 

The colors are bay, black, gray, and chestnut, the popu- 
larity of color running in about the order named. 

THE SUFFOLK HORSE 

Origin. — The Suffolk or Suffolk Punch is a breed of 
draft horses that developed in the county of Suffolk in 
eastern England, and it is in this section of the world that 
the greatest numbers are to be found to-day. They have 
never been much exploited in America, which accounts, 
in a great measure, for their apparent lack of popularity. 
The breed, however, has merit and will, no doubt, enjoy 
wider distribution when its worth is more widely known 
and appreciated. 

Characteristics. — The purity of this breed can be traced 
further back than any other breed of British horses, being 
well established as early as the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. As to form, they are characterized by a low, 
deep, compact body; short, strong back ; excellent spring of 
ribs ; strong thighs, and depth of flank. They are excellent 
feeders, and can easily be kept in good flesh. Their action 
is good and their limbs are clean. The general objections 
are feet of limited size, although generally of good quality 
and texture, and pasterns somewhat too steep. They are 
also criticized for being too light in the limbs in propor- 
tion to their heavy bodies, although the bones are clean 
and strong and the muscles are well developed. 



COACH BREEDS 



89 




Fig. 24. — Suffolk horse. 



These horses are uniformly chestnut in color and breed 
very true to type, which makes them valuable for pur- 
poses of grading. The males weigh from 1900 to 2000 
pounds, and the females about 1600 to 1700 pounds, at 
mature weight. 

THE HACKNEY HORSE 

Coach Breeds. — The Hackneys belong to the coach or 
carriage horses, which include three other types ; French 
Coach, German Coach, and Cleveland Bay. 

History. — Hackneys are heavy harness horses, in which 
beauty and attractiveness of action are combined with 
strength and symmetry of body. They originated in 
Yorkshire, England, where as early as 1800 they were bred 
for trotting purposes. In early Hackney pedigrees there 



90 BREEDS OF HORSES 

often appear the same names as are found in trotting horse 
pedigrees, showing that these breeds have similar origin. 
Later, toward the middle of the nineteenth century, the 
establishment of horse shows did much to encourage im- 
provement in the breed. The action of the Hackney is at- 
tractive, being strong and " flashy " rather than " speedy." 
Speed is sacrificed for great knee and hock action, which 
produce the " high stepping " horses so popular at horse 
shows. Since weight is essential to strength, and action is 
associated with lack of weight, the greatest difficulty met 
in getting good Hackneys is to attain proper weight and 
retain quality and action in the animal. 

Characteristics. — In form the Hackney is muscular, 
with a round, compact body. To allow the desired high 
knee action, the shoulder is well sloped and muscular. 
Strength and depth of thigh favor the extreme action of 
the hock. The neck is quite muscular and nicely curved ; 
the head is clean with a straight profile. The loin is 
heavily muscled, and the croup is comparatively straight. 
The feet of the Hackney are well shaped and of good qual- 
ity. The pasterns are long, strong, gently sloping, and 
springy, and the joints of the knee and hock are large, 
clean, and well set. 

These horses are generally chestnut, brown, or bay of 
solid color, making them easily matched. 

Males weigh up to 1500 pounds and females up to 1300 
pounds. 

Hackneys are well distributed throughout the world 
wherever fancy carriage horses are demanded. Although 
the first importation of any great numbers to America did 
not appear until after 1881, they are now our most popular 
heavy harness horse. 



COACH HORSE 



9i 



THE FRENCH COACH HORSE 

History. — This breed of horses has been developed in 
France, in a region west of the city of Paris. They were 
used for several different purposes, which evolved several 




Fig. 25. — French Coach horse. 

different types. For centuries the French people have had 
racing horses, especially horses that could trot rapidly un- 
der the saddle for distances of from one to three miles. 
This developed the Trotting type. The government of 
France has done much to encourage the breeding of horses 
for army or remount purposes, and it offers a premium or 
subsidy of from Si 00 to Si 000 annually on good stallions, 



92 BREEDS OF HORSES 

so that the owners will keep them in France for breeding 
purposes. This government aid gave rise to the army 
type. In France, as in other countries, a desire on the 
part of the people for a horse suitable for carriage work 
gave rise to the carriage type. The animals of the car- 
riage type, the most popular in America, weigh from 1 200 
to 1400 pounds ; an average weight for males being 
1350 pounds and for females, about 1200 pounds. 

Characteristics. — In perfecting this breed, the French 
introduced blood from all available sources, the aim being 
to produce the desired type, regardless of origin. From 
England came the blood of Thoroughbreds and Hackneys ; 
from Arabia the blood of the Arabian horse ; and from 
America some American Trotter blood. The result of these 
infusions is a horse of strength, style, and quality, and 
with an abundance of action. 

The prevailing colors are bay, brown, and black, and the 
height is about 16 hands They are an upstanding breed 
with clean heads and necks, round, compact bqdies, and 
deep, strong quarters. Although most popular in France, 
they are found in large numbers in America. 

THE GERMAN COACH HORSE 

History. — This breed of horses was developed in the 
northwestern part of Germany for heavy carriage pur- 
poses, and by the government for army purposes. 

It is definitely known that these horses have been bred 
in Germany for centuries, but authorities are uncertain as 
to their true origin and development. The various Ger- 
man states have produced the different types of German 
Coach horses in America to-day, and these types have 
different names. Thus we find advertised the East Prus- 



COACH HORSE 93 

sian or Trakehner, the Hanoverian, the Holstein, the 
Oldenberg, East Friesland, and Mecklenburg, all claimed to 
be German Coach horses. 

Characteristics. — The German Coach horses generally 
seen at American shows are somewhat heavier than the 
French Coach horses, and the stylish action of the Hack- 
ney is usually lacking. They have strong muscular necks 
and shoulders ; round, strong bodies ; level croups, and 
strong thighs and quarters. The colors are black, bay, 
and brown. They weigh about 1350 to 1450 pounds, and 
stand about 16 to 16^ hands high. In Germany, the 
lighter ones are used for fast driving, and the heavier ones 
as horses of all work. In this country they have not 
attained any great popularity. 

THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE 

History. — This breed of coach horses originated in 
Yorkshire, in northern England. They were developed to 
meet the demand for a heavy horse for cross country coach- 
ing, and to draw heavy " turn-outs " in the cities. 

Characteristics. — They are an upstanding breed, uni- 
versally bay in color, weigh up to 1500 pounds, and have 
strong action. They are very prepotent in transmitting 
these characters when crossed with common breeds. For 
these reasons, they can be easily matched, are attractive, 
and good specimens sell well. 

Cleveland Bay horses have never become very popular 
in America. Their size and endurance might make them 
useful for farm work, but farmers prefer to raise the more 
salable and profitable draft horse. In competition with 
the Hackney, they lack the action and- quality necessary 
for great success as heavy harness or carriage horses. 



94 BREEDS OF HORSES 

THE AMERICAN TROTTER AND PACER 

The Roadster Type. — This group of. horses includes 
among others the following three prominent breeds ; 
American Trotter and Pacer, Arabian, and Thoroughbred. 

History. — The American Trotter, whose ancestry can 
be traced to the trotting and Thoroughbred horses of 
England, has been developed for the sole purpose of speed 
and pleasure. By selecting and mating the horses that 
made fast records, a type best suited for speed has been 
evolved. American Trotters are the fastest trotting horses 
in the world. Trotting bred horses that come up to cer- 
tain standard requirements set forth by the American 
Trotting Register are known as " Standard Bred Horses." 

Characteristics. — The trot is a gait in which one front 
foot and the opposite hind foot are moved forward at the 
same time. In the pace, one front foot and one hind 
foot on the same side are moved forward at the same time. 
In both the trot and pace, there is a time that all four feet 
are in the air, the horse being thrown forward with mo- 
mentum sufficient to carry his weight through the air. 
The trot is straightforward. In the pace, the body has a 
swaying motion from side to side. The pace is a faster 
gait than the trot, the world's pacing record for a mile 
being about three seconds lower. The trot is a more 
powerful looking gait, and for driving purposes it is the 
more popular. In the pace the feet are not lifted so high 
from the ground, which is an advantage on hard roads 
and streets, giving the horse somewhat better wearing 
qualities. 

The form of these horses is strongly in contrast with the 
form of the draft horse. Strength is sacrificed for speed, 



TROTTING HORSE 



95 




Fig. 26. — American Trotter. 



and huge muscles are replaced by strong tendons. Short, 
thick, coarse bones are replaced by more slender and re- 
fined bones of great strength, smoothness, and hardness. 
The hair is also finer than that of the draft horse. The 
eyes are bright and clear, the chest is deep and full, and the 
back short and strong ; all these points indicating endurance 
and constitution. The joints are clean and strong, and the 
feet of proportionate size and of extra good quality. 

Some Great Race Horses. — The history of the trotting 
horse is associated with the racetrack, and records made 
there have influenced the selection of breeding stock. The 
horse, Messenger, imported to America in 1788 and traced 
back to Thoroughbred stock, had a marked influence upon 



96 BREEDS OF HORSES 

American horses. A great many trotting horse families 
trace their parentage back to Messenger, and an elaborate 
pedigree of Dan Patch (i :$5i) traces back to Messenger 
43 times. Some of the leading families are the Clay, 
Morgan, Hal, Mambrino Chief, Hambletonian, and Pilot. 
Since most of these families started about the middle of 
the nineteenth century, the trotting horse is of compara- 
tively recent development. 

The Morgan family, from which are obtained the Mor- 
gan horses, is not famous for speed, but for horses that 
are symmetrical, useful, beautiful, and stylish. 

The Standard Bred trotting horses are most useful for 
producing roadsters, a class of horses which the auto- 
mobile is rapidly supplanting. The United States govern- 
ment is now developing a type of heavy harness horse by 
mating the heavier and stronger Standard Bred horses. 

THE ARABIAN HORSE 

The Arabian horse deserves study because its blood 
has had much to do in developing practically all of our 
modern breeds. 

History. — The breed of Arabian horses was well estab- 
lished before the time of Mohammed, who lived about 
seven hundred years after the birth of Christ, and the 
history of this breed is definitely known back to about 
1500 A.D. The blood of the Arabian horse is distributed 
over practically the entire world in the breeds of light 
horses. Arabian horses were first imported into England 
early in the seventeenth century, and helped to develop the 
Hackney and Thoroughbred. They were introduced very 
early into America and had a marked influence upon our 
light horses. 



THOROUGHBRED HORSE 97 

Characteristics. — This breed of horses is noted for 
beauty, endurance, and fearlessness. They are strongly 
and symmetrically built, and stand about 14-j hands high. 
The colors may be white, gray, bay, chestnut, brown, or 
black. 

THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE 

This term is properly applied only to a distinct breed of 
horses developed principally in England. 

History. — It is thought that the ancestry of the Thor- 
oughbred traces back to Oriental and African horses, that 
were brought into the British Isles as far back as the 
seventh or eighth centuries. From these horses some of 
the best of the progeny were selected to serve for cavalry 
and racing purposes. By selecting the fastest and largest 
ones the general improvement of the breed was accom- 
plished. 

In America, the Thoroughbred horse has attained as 
much perfection as in the British Isles. The first ones 
were introduced into Virginia as early as 1730, and in that 
state are now found some of the best horses of the breed, 
which are used for hunting and pleasure purposes. 

Characteristics. — They have been bred pure longer than 
any other known breed and have been developed primarily 
for speed under the saddle ; consequently the form evolved 
is best suited for that purpose. The typical Thoroughbred 
is extremely refined about the head with fine ears and a 
rather straight profile. The eye is clear and bright, indi- 
cating great nervous strength and endurance. The neck 
is long and slender and the head is carried low rather than 
hicrh. as is the case of the more stylish carriage horses. 
The body is long and sinuous ; and in strong contrast with 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 7 



98 BREEDS OF HORSES 

the short thick muscles so much sought for in the draft 
horse, this horse has long, strong tendons. The legs are 
quite long ; the muscles refined ; the pasterns long and 
strong, and the bones and feet of the best quality. The 
horse is strong in the quarters, with strong tendons and 
joints in the rear limbs. The blood vessels show very 
prominently, which is considered an index of good 
breeding. In action, the one ideal is that of speed, for 
which style is sacrificed. The Thoroughbred should travel 
close to the ground, and waste no energy in fancy steps. 
This horse has had so much to do with attracting the at- 
tention of man toward the improvement of live stock that 
its study is quite important, even though it does not re- 
ceive much attention from the practical breeder. 

At the present time this breed is very useful in crossing 
with common horses to impart quality. The American 
Trotter, Hackney, and Coach breeds all owe much of their 
quality and refinement to the infusions of Thoroughbred 
blood they have received in their development. 

PONIES 

Practically every country 'in the world where horses are 
found has developed its own type of ponies. The sparse 
feed and severe climatic conditions under which they are 
produced tend to give the pony its small size, which alone 
distinguishes it from the horse. In the British Isles the 
height of the pony is given as 14 hands, but the American 
standard is 14 hands, 1 inch. The height of the polo pony 
is 14 hands, 2 inches, or about the height of the Arabian 
horse. 

Ponies are useful for riding, for drawing light vehicles, and 



PONIES 99 

in some cases for doing light draft work. Their great en- 
durance makes them especially desirable for long trips and 
for use in sections of the country where agriculture has not 
reached a high state of development. They can be cheaply 
kept because they are able to use their food to the best 
possible advantage. 

In breeding ponies, one of the great difficulties is to keep 
the size within the limits set by the breed requirements. 
The care and attention which must of necessity be given to 
breeding operations tends to increase the size of the ani- 
mals with each succeeding generation. 

American Ponies. — In America, the common pony is 
the mustang, a term applied alike to both bronchos and 
Indian ponies. These ponies, which are small and very 
hardy, have been bred on the ranges where they have run 
wild for many years. Their weights range from 850 to 
900 pounds. Though difficult to break, they are faith- 
ful, intelligent, fearless when trained, and have great en- 
durance. These qualities have made them the favorite 
pony of the cowboy on the western ranges. 

Ponies of Great Britain. — In Great Britain, there are 
a number of breeds of ponies produced, the most common 
being the Shetland, the Welsh, and the Hackney. 

The Shetland Pony. — The Shetland ponies are the 
smallest breed. In their native country, the Shetland 
Islands, lying to the north of Scotland, they are used to 
carry loads, to work in mines, and to draw vehicles. Liv- 
ing under the influence of a very severe climate, they are 
the hardiest little horses that the world produces. In 
conformation they are blocky ; their weight varies from 325 
t() 375 pounds, and their height is from 36 to 40 inches. 
When allowed to run out of doors, they produce long, 



ioo BREEDS OF HORSES 

shaggy coats of hair. The common colors are brown, 
black, and bay. There are also chestnuts, grays, and a 
great many broken colors. In this country, the Shetland 
pony is a favorite with children, and as pets they have 
found their way into nearly every country in the civilized 
world. 

The Welsh Pony. — The Welsh pony is produced in the 
mountain sections of Wales. Forced to exist under very 
severe conditions, it has developed great hardiness. It is 
not so blocky as the Shetland, but is speedier and more 
useful for both riding and driving. 

The Hackney Pony. — The Hackney pony is really a 
Hackney horse less than 14^- hands high. Its size has also 
been reduced by introducing some of the blood of the 
Welsh pony. It has marvelous action, and because of this 
it is, in this country, meeting with the favor of people who 
wish small horses for fancy driving purposes. 



Fig. 27- — Shetland Pony. 



THE DONKEY 



IOI 




Fig. 28. — Welsh Pony. 



THE DONKEY 



History. — The donkey or ass, a beast of burden common 
to southern Europe, was first brought to this country about 
the time of the Revolutionary War. The best types have 
come from Spain and France, and are now found in the 
southern and central parts of the United States, more 
particularly in Kentucky and Missouri. 

Characteristics. — The donkey is distinguished from the 
horse by its long ears, large head, slender legs, small hoofs, 
and its peculiar voice. The color sought for in this country 
is black, with gray points. The feet are very narrow and 
the joints of the legs are large, although the bones are of 
good quality. The body is compact and the back is short 



102 



BREEDS OF HORSES 




Fig. 29. — Donkey. 

and straight. The tail is smooth except near the end, where 
it has hair similar to that on the tail of the horse. 

The burro, a small type of donkey, is popular in moun- 
tainous sections of America. It is not much larger than 
the Shetland pony, and is used chiefly as a pack animal. 
Its patience, strength, and faithfulness make it especially 
valuable. 



THE MULE 

The mule is the hybrid cross of the donkey and horse. 

The characteristics of the donkey and the horse are 
combined in the mule. The mule has long ears like the 
donkey, brays like him, and has narrow feet quite similar 
to those of the donkey. However, there is more symmetry 



MULES 



103 




104 BREEDS OF HORSES 

of body and quality in the joints and bones of the mule. 
The mule has a more nearly cylindrical body and is colored 
more like the horse. 

Plantation Mules are the best and highest priced mules 
on the market. They range from 14 to 16 hands in height 
and from 11 00 to 1400 pounds in weight. They are called 
" sugar " mules or " cotton " mules according to the use 
to which they are to be put on the plantation. The sugar 
mules are the larger and bring the higher prices. 

Lumber Mules stand from 15^ to 17 hands high and 
are used for hard, rough work in the woods. Extra quality 
is not so essential as strength and ruggedness. 

Railroad Mules are somewhat smaller and lighter than 
lumber mules, being about 15-2- to 16^ hands high, and 
weighing from 1200 to 1500 pounds. They are used for 
work in grading railroads and must be strong and of 
good quality. 

Levee Mules are of about the same size as railroad mules, 
but are of better quality. They must be strong and rugged 
to stand the heavy work exacted of them at the wharves. 

Mine Mules are small, ranging in height from 11 to 15^ 
hands. Since their work is hard they must be chunky and 
strong. In order that they may work back into the drifts 
they need to be small. 

The mule is resistant to disease and stands hot weather 
better than does the horse. Female mules are superior to 
males for all purposes. They mature earlier, are quieter, 
and fatten more easily. 

EXERCISES 

1. What are the English breeds of draft horses? How do 
they differ from the French breed? 



EXERCISES 105 

2. Classify draft horses as to smooth leg breeds, hairy leg 
breeds. 

3. What are the distinguishing characteristics of each breed 
of horses? 

4. Study the horses on the street to see if you can detect 
breed characteristics. 

HOME PROJECTS 

Study the home horses and those of your neighbors and see 
how many breed characteristics you can detect. By these de- 
termine, if possible, their breed ancestry. 



CHAPTER VII 
BREEDS OF CATTLE 

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE 

According to type, cattle are classed as beef, dairy, 
and dual purpose cattle. 

The beef breeds are Shorthorn, Polled Durham, Hereford, 
Polled Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, Galloway, and West 
Highland. 

The dairy breeds are Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, Ayr- 
shire, Brown Swiss, Dutch Belted, French-Canadian, and 
Kerry. 

The most common dual purpose breeds are Red Poll 
and Devon. 

SHORTHORN 

Shorthorn cattle are sometimes called the reds, the whites, 
and the roans, because these are the colors common to 
them. Originating in northern England in the fertile 
counties of Durham and Northumberland, this breed is 
sometimes called Durham, but modern usage makes 
Shorthorn the correct name. 

History. — The foundation stock of this breed were 
called " Teeswater " cattle. They were of no particular 
color, and not especially uniform in type and quality. The 
Colling Brothers were among the earliest men to do con- 
sistent work in improving the breed. They were followed 

106 



SHORTHORN CATTLE 107 

by Thomas Booth, who developed large cattle that were 
wide over the back and hips, but lacked in quality. The 
next man of note was Thomas Bates, who aimed, by care- 
ful selection and mating, to establish a strain of cattle that 
was large and of good quality. The Bates cattle, as they 
are called, had very short horns, fine heads, smooth, sym- 
metrical bodies, and were useful for milking purposes. Mr. 
Bates succeeded in establishing several families of this 
type, which were eagerly sought after both in England and 
America. He was a good showman and believed in exten- 
sive advertising. The most famous family he ever pro- 
duced was the Duchess family. One of this family, a cow 
named " Eighth Duchess of Geneva," in 1873 sold for 
$40,600 at public auction in New York State, a record- 
breaking price for a cow. 

While the Bates cattle were strong evidence of what 
can be accomplished in the breeding line, they were lack- 
ing in hardiness under unfavorable conditions. In develop- 
ing the strain, Mr. Bates had done considerable inbreed- 
ing and the constitutions of the cattle were thus impaired. 
Amos Cruickshank was a farsighted Scotchman who 
looked forward to the time when there would be a large 
demand for beef cattle on the vast ranges of the western 
part of the United States, and in the Argentine of South 
America. So he set to work to develop from the Short- 
horns a purely beef strain of cattle. He selected only 
those of most nearly perfect conformation, and in time 
developed a beefier strain than were the Bates cattle. 
The cold climate of Scotland" made the cattle hardier than 
the English cattle were ; they matured earlier ; and it was 
not long until the Scotch cattle, as they were called, be- 
came popular in the show ring. Sometimes they are called 



io8 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



" Cruickshank " cattle in honor of the man who was the 
first to develop them. 

Shorthorn cattle are the most widely distributed of any 
breed of cattle and can be found in all parts of the civilized 
world. As beef animals they are in the foremost rank. 
Some of the cows are very good milkers. About 95 per cent 
of the milk produced in the British Isles is from Shorthorn 




Fig. 31. — " Roan Queen," a Champion Shorthorn heifer. 

cows. In this country milking strains of Shorthorn cattle 
are held in favor by some farmers, since they produce a 
liberal supply of milk and a calf that can be sold for beef 
at a good price. Such animals are known as " milking 
Shorthorns," and are dual purpose cattle. 

Characteristics. — The colors of the Shorthorn are red, 
white, and roan (a mixture of red and white hairs) . The roan 
color is now much in favor on the market. Good bulls of 
this breed weigh up to 2000 or 2200 pounds when mature. 
Bulls have been known to weigh up to 3000 pounds, but 



POLLED DURHAM CATTLE 



109 



these cases are rare and this great weight is not desirable. 
Good cows weigh from 1400 to 1600 pounds. 

THE POLLED DURHAM 

The Polled Durham breed of beef cattle have the charac- 
teristics of the Shorthorns, but are without horns. There 
are two distinct types : the Double Standard and the Single 
Standard Polled Durhams. The Double Standards were ob- 
tained by saving for breeding purposes hornless Shorthorn 
" freaks " which occasionally appeared. The Single Stand- 
ard resulted from the efforts of various men to produce 
hornless cattle that possessed the type of the Shorthorn. 
Both the Single and Double Standard Polled Durhams can 
be recorded in the Polled Durham herd book, and the Double 
Standard Polled Durhams can be recorded in the Shorthorn 
herd book as well, because they are pure bred Shorthorns 
according to the generally accepted definition of the term. 




Polled Durham bull. 



no 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



In judging the Polled Durham cattle the same type is 
desired as is sought for in the Shorthorn. These cattle 
are now attaining a high degree of excellence and will 
gradually improve as the number of breeding animals 
increases. 

THE HEREFORD 

History. — Hereford cattle originated in the county or 
shire of Hereford, in the southwestern part of England. 
They are easily recognized . by their color markings. The 
color is red with white face, white on the underline and on 




Fig. 33. — Hereford yearlings. 

the neck back to the shoulders. This color is so striking 
that the cattle are often spoken of as " White Faces." 
There are, of course, variations from these general color 
markings, but in a mixed lot of cattle an amateur can easily 
pick out the Herefords by their white faces and red bodies. 



HEREFORD CATTLE 



in 



Characteristics. — This breed is strictly a beef breed 
and the fanciers make no claim to milking qualities, al- 
though there is occasionally a cow that is a good milker. 







■'JM 


■ ■■','■ " : 







Fig. 34. — Horned Hereford bull. 



Herefords are very hardy and have become famous in this 
country on the ranges. As grazing cattle they are excel- 
lent and are said to be the logical successors to the buffalo. 
Because the man who lives in the corn belt has in the past 
few years looked to the range to furnish feeding cattle, the 
Herefords have become very common in the feed lots, 
where they make good gains on feed, and finish off well. 
They are now distributed over the world wherever good 
grazing ground is obtainable, and large herds of them are 
to be found in Argentina, where they are raised to supply 
the British demand for beef. 

Because they have so long been reared under such natu- 
ral conditions, they have developed thickness through the 
fore quarters, and have become somewhat lighter in the rear 
quarters, a fault, however, not found in the better Herefords. 



112 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



POLLED HEREFORDS 

The Herefords have large horns, a serious objection. 
Most of them are dehorned before they go into the feed lot. 
To do away with the dehorning, men have developed within 
the ranks of the Hereford breed a polled strain. Because 
there were so few of them, inbreeding had to be resorted 
to. Thus the type evolved is not so good as the best Here- 




Fig. 35. — Polled Hereford bull. 



fords, although as the numbers increase, the type will 
doubtless improve. The strain established within the 
ranks of the breed is known as " Double Standard Polled 
Hereford " and is eligible to register in the Hereford Herd 
Book. The " Single Standard Polled Hereford " was es- 
tablished by crossing horned Herefords with common 



ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE 113 

hornless cows. The progeny were polled and having the 
white face of the Hereford were called Polled Herefords. 
This strain is not eligible to register in the Hereford Herd 
Book. 

THE ABERDEEN ANGUS 

History. — The Aberdeen Angus breed, sometimes called 
" Doddies," developed in northeastern Scotland, and 
some of the best of them are produced there to-day. They 




Fig. 36. — Aberdeen Angus cow. 

arc characterized by their black color and polled heads, 
and are sometimes confused with the Galloways, — another 
black, hornless beef breed produced in Scotland. With a 
little experience, one is able to distinguish between these 
two breeds, as the Angus is smoother and has better quality 
than the Galloway. 

Angus cattle produce the best meat, and in show yard 
circles, where all beef breeds compete, carry off more honors 

T. AND L. ANIMAL IIUSB. 8 



114 BREEDS OF CATTLE 

than any other breed. Besides winning over 60 per cent 
of the grand champion honors, they have won more than 
half the championship honors for car lots and carcasses at 
the Chicago International Live Stock Expositions. They 
are very popular in the feed lot, and have met with much 
favor on the range, although they are not so numerous 
there as are the Herefords. 

Characteristics. — They are very compact in type ; their 
bodies are cylindrical, and contain great weight in propor- 
tion to the surface of the body. When fat, they are de- 
ceptive, weighing heavily for their apparent size. When 
mature, the bulls weigh from 2000 to 2200 pounds and the 
mature cows weigh from 1400 to 1600 pounds. 

THE GALLOWAY 

History. — Galloway cattle originated in the southwest- 
ern part of Scotland where the best types of the breed are to 
be found to-day. The early history of the Galloways is not 
well known, but it is stated that they were found by the Ro- 
mans when they visited Scotland about the fourth century. 

Characteristics. — They have many things in common 
with the Aberdeen Angus. Both breeds are black, both 
are polled, but the Galloways are somewhat smaller and 
have long shaggy coats of hair. They are very hardy, 
and valuable for a rough country with a severe climate. 
Their hides, because of the long hair they carry, are valuable 
for robes and coats. As yet, they have not attained the 
popularity enjoyed by the Aberdeen Angus cattle. 

The Galloways are valuable in the feed lot, and may be on 
the range. They are very prepotent and readily transmit 
their characters to their offspring, making them useful for 
grading up a beef herd. 



HIGHLAND CATTLE 115 



Fig- 37- — Galloway bull. 

THE WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE 

West Highland cattle are produced in greatest numbers 
in the Highlands of Scotland where they originated. They 
are easily distinguished by the dun color, rugged appear- 
ance, long shaggy coats of hair, heavy horns, and the blocky 
conformation of their bodies. 

In Scotland they are well liked for the quality of beef 
which they produce, and for their ability to thrive at little 
expense in the mountainous sections. It is said they are 
the only breed of cattle that will stand and face a storm. 
They have never attained great popularity in America. 
There is scarcely any demand for them, so that their impor- 
tation to this country has not been encouraged. Under 
natural conditions, they run in the open practically all the 
year, and this free and open life has made them somewhat 
nervous and wild when put into the feed lot. Under native 



n6 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 




HOLSTEIN CATTLE 117 

conditions, they are small, but they have been quite suc- 
cessful in competition with other breeds for show-yard 
honors. 

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE 

Holstein-Friesian cattle, commonly called " Holsteins," 
originated in the small and thickly settled European coun- 
try of the Netherlands, a large part of which is below the 
level of the sea and which has been reclaimed from it. 
The land is low and wet and the climate is very moist, 
ideal conditions for the growth of pasture grass. 

History. — The early history of the Holstein is not 
definitely known, but records show that large producing 
cows were common to that part of Europe over 1000 years 
ago. From this breed sprung some of the most important 
breeds of Denmark, Germany, and Belgium. The early 
Dutch settlers brought some of these cattle to the United 
States. Large black and white cattle were numerous in 
the New England States over 200 years ago. 

Characteristics. — Holsteins are easily recognized by 
their black and white color and their great size. Bulls 
weighing up to 2500 or 2600 pounds in moderate flesh are 
not unusual, though those weighing around a ton are more 
desirable. Cows will weigh up to 1800 or 1900 pounds, but 
the most common weights run from 1250 to 1450 pounds. 
Holstein calves are very large, and their high birth weights 
make them desirable for veal purposes. 

The cows are the heaviest yielders of milk of any dairy 
breed. Good cows produce on the average 10,000 pounds 
of milk annually, while some have produced over 30,000 
pounds in a single year. Farmers like the cows because 
they are large and strong, which gives them the capacity 



n8 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



to consume large quantities of roughage and return large 
quantities of milk. The objection often raised against 
Holstein cows is that their milk is not high enough in fat 
content, the average for the breed running about 3-J per 
cent. This low test is offset, however, by the large yield, 
so that the Holstein also makes a good butter cow. 

Holstein fanciers make some claims for the beef qualities 
of the breed, but the markets discriminate against the black 
and white color. However, one can sell the cows after 
they have done a life service in yielding milk for more 
money than can be realized for smaller cows. These 
cattle are becoming more and more popular throughout 
the country and good prices for them prevail. 

JERSEY CATTLE 

The native home of the Jersey is the Island of Jersey, 
from which the breed derives its name. This island is 




Fig- 39- — Jersey cow. 



JERSEY CATTLE 119 

one of the Channel Islands, located in the English Chan- 
nel between England and France. The Island of Jersey is 
only eleven miles long and six miles wide, and contains a 
population so dense that the size of the farms is very small, 
and all the possible farming land must be utilized to the 
best advantage. The climate is temperate and moist, and 
the people are very industrious. In the midst of such 
surroundings was developed one of the best butter breeds 
of the world. 

History. — The methods employed by the natives in 
developing this breed of cattle are interesting. They kept 
for breeding purposes only those cows that produced a 
good supply of butter, paying little attention at first to 
the amount of milk given by the cows. Later, however, 
they began selecting cows for milk flow as well as for but- 
ter production, and in that way developed the milking 
qualities. - Selecting for butter production developed cattle 
that gave rich milk, and the cows still retain that quality. 
Another thing the people of the island did was to prohibit 
the importation of outside breeds into the island, and in 
this way the cattle were kept pure. The government also 
helped the industry by placing premiums upon the best 
cows and bulls, which premium had to be refunded if they 
were sold to leave the island. Certain good animals were 
also kept in communities where the poorer farmers could 
make use of them for the improvement of their herds. 

Characteristics. — In size, the Jersey is the smallest of 
the well-known dairy breeds, the cows weighing from 700 
to 1000 pounds and the bulls ranging around 1400 to 1600 
pounds in weight. While their small size is often raised 
as an objection to them, they are very economical pro- 
ducers. Jersey cows have proven themselves able to com- 



120 BREEDS OF. CATTLE 

pete with other breeds in actual production of butter fat 
for a year's time. Their color is variable, ranging from 
light fawn to heavy dun or black. Breeders have never 
paid so much attention to color as they have to form and 
performance, but broken colors are very undesirable. 
Black at the extremities is desirable. In form the Jerseys 
are pretty cattle. The cows have neat heads, and very 
fawnlike necks. The eye is large and prominent, and the 
ear is neatly carried. The shoulders are slight, the back- 
bone prominent, the barrel of liberal size, the udder large, 
well shaped, and proportioned, with the teats well placed 
and of convenient size. The good animals are quite uni- 
form as to type. The bulls display a great deal of vigor, 
and are very active and highly organized. This latter 
characteristic makes them undesired by some, because if 
not carefully handled, they may become vicious. 

The principal weaknesses of the breed are lack of size, 
and consequent lack of constitution. Some of the Ameri- 
can bred cattle, however, have sufficient size and as good 
constitutions as any other dairy breed. 

GUERNSEY CATTLE 

Guernsey cattle were developed on the Island of Guern- 
sey, a sister island to the Island of Jersey. Guernsey is 
smaller than Jersey, and not nearly so many cattle can be 
produced on it. While Guernsey cattle were introduced 
into America at an earlier date than the Jersey, they were 
not so popular, due to the fact that they were not ad- 
vertised so much during the earlier days, and could not be 
produced on the island fast enough to fill the demand. 

Their development, while similar in essentials to the 
development of Jerseys, differs in some respects. The 



GUERNSEY CATTLE 



121 



people of the Island of Guernsey are very busily engaged in 
raising flowers and garden supplies for the big markets of 
London. The cattle have been allowed for the most 
part to evolve naturally. Their origin seems to be a cross 
between the big red cattle of Normandy, and the little 
black cows of Brittany. The characteristics of the Nor- 
mandy cattle predominate. For almost a century, no out- 




Fig. 40. — Guernsey cow. 

side cattle have been imported into the island. Thus they 
have been kept pure. 

The first importation into America was about 1833. 
No great impetus was given to the breed until the World's 
Fair in Chicago, when in the public test they took their 
place along with the Jerseys as economical producers 
of butter fat, and with the other dairy breeds as producers 
of total milk solids. Their strongest point is that they 
yield a finely flavored product of the best natural color. 



122 BREEDS OF CATTLE 

Characteristics. — Guernseys are somewhat larger than 
Jerseys. The cows, when mature, should weigh about 1050 
pounds, and the bulls about 1500 pounds. The hair 
is a shade of fawn with white markings, the nose cream 
colored, and the horns amber colored, curving, and not 
coarse. The skin should be rich in yellow secretions, indi- 
cating richness in the color of the products. In general 
type they conform closely to that of the Jersey. Great 
stress is placed on the type and shape of the udder. They 
have an even temperament, and the bulls are easily 
handled. 

AYRSHIRES 

History. — Ayrshire cattle are the dairy breed of south- 
ern Scotland and one of the prominent breeds in America. 
They are a hardy breed that give a liberal supply of milk 
on grass or scanty rations. 

These cattle were brought to America at an early date 
and remained in the eastern part of the United States, to 
which section they were confined for many years. The 
first real impetus that was given to the breed was at the 
time of the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893. Two types of 
Ayrshire cattle were shown ; one from Canada, the other 
from the Eastern States. The cattle which came from 
Canada had straighter backs and their colors were not so 
badly broken, with white predominating. They were a 
trifle longer legged, but their bodies were rounder and more 
symmetrical. The shape of the udder had been given par- 
ticular attention, and for uniformity in this respect the 
Canadian type was unsurpassed. The udders were well 
held up neatly in front and behind, and the teats, while 
quite short, were well placed at the corners of the udder. 



AYRSHIRE CATTLE 



123 



The cows also carried their width well out at the rear, giv- 
ing them a beautiful form. At this show the Canadian or 
Scotch type won the favor of the judge and this type of 




Fig. 41. — Ayrshire cow. 

Ayrshire has now become the fashionable one in show-yard 
circles. 

Characteristics. — The colors of the Ayrshire are various 
shades of red or brown, with white, mahogany and white, 
or white, with each color clearly defined. Brindle is 
allowed, but is undesirable. At the present time the 
white color should predominate. While the dairy type is 
preferred, it is not so greatly sought after as in the case of the 
Jersey, Guernsey, or Holstein, particular emphasis being 
placed upon beauty of form, symmetry, smoothness, 
straightness of lines, and uniformity of udder and placing 



124 



BREEDS OF CATTLE 



of teats. Ayrshires should also show considerable style, 
and while they should not be nervous, the eye should 
be clear, and indicative of health and constitution. Bulls 
should weigh not less than 1500 pounds and cows not less 
than 1000 pounds when mature. 



BROWN SWISS CATTLE 

History. — As implied by the name, this breed of cattle 
originated in Switzerland. They are said to have descended 




Fig. 42. — Brown Swiss cow. 

from the Brown Switzer, an old breed found in the more 
mountainous sections of this mountainous country. No one 
man stands out prominently as a developer of the breed. 
These cattle were evolved by the nation as the breed best 
suited to the conditions under which they live. Gen- 



BROWN SWISS CATTLE 125 

erally they are grazed on the mountains in the summer and 
taken back to the valleys in the winter and fed upon hay. 
The rough topography of the country and the rigors of the 
climate naturally called for a hardy breed. The cows are 
also used for work animals, which tends to make them 
strong and muscular, oftentimes coarse. 

Characteristics. — Brown Swiss cattle are quite large, 
bulls weighing 1800 pounds and cows 1200 pounds when 
mature and properly developed. The calves are large 
when born, ranking next to the Holstein calves in weight. 
At one time the Brown Swiss were classed as dual purpose 
cattle, but now they are regarded as one of the special 
dairy breeds. As yet they lack the extreme dairy type of 
the Jerseys and Guernseys, and are not so uniform. In 
color they are a light to dark chestnut brown, with a 
light tuft of hair between the horns on the inside of the 
ears, and a narrow line along the back. The nose is 
black with a meal-colored band around it. The horns, 
while occasionally coarse, are of medium size and length 
with black tips. The tail is long with a heavy black 
switch. The hoofs and tongue are black. The legs are 
heavy and straight. The udder is large and should be well 
set, carrying large well-placed teats. The ribs are well 
sprung, and the heart girth large, indicating good consti- 
tution. 

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE 

History. — This breed of dairy cattle which originated in 
the Netherlands is easily recognized by the peculiar and 
uniform coloring. The two colors are jet black and pure 
white, the white encircling the animal as a belt from the 
shoulders to the hips, hence the name. 



126 BREEDS OF CATTLE 

While their history is not so well known as that of some 
breeds, it is said that about 1750 a Dutch nobleman con- 
ceived the idea of breeding cattle that would be black in 
color with white belts around the middle of the body, and 
from his foundation the breed was perfected. They were 
first brought to America about 1840, when P. T. Barnum, 
the great circus man, imported a few to take with his 
show. After 1850 there were no more importations, the 
principal reason being that they were difficult to obtain, 
which accounts for their scarcity in this country at the 
present time. 

Characteristics. — In size these cattle are medium, mature 
bulls weighing up to 2000 pounds, and mature cows weigh- 
ing from 900 to 1300 pounds. In type they are of the 
dairy conformation. They have good dispositions, and 
make good dairy cows. While they have not secured any 
great milk records, they are economical producers and do 
well on rough hilly land. 

FRENCH-CANADIAN CATTLE 

History. — This breed of cattle originated in Canada, 
being descendants of cattle from Brittany and Normandy 
brought over by the early French settlers. They are of 
the same origin as the Jersey cattle, and in many respects 
resemble them, although the more rugged climatic condi- 
tions under which they have been developed have made 
them more hardy. They are economical producers, doing 
well on scant rations. 

Characteristics. — These cattle are quite small, the cows 
when fully mature weighing from 700 to 900 pounds, and 
the bulls about 1000 pounds. In color, they are black, 
brown, dark brown, with or without a yellow stripe along 



RED POLLED CATTLE 127 

the back and around the muzzle. They may also be fawn 
or brindle in color, and white under the belly, on the fore- 
head, and switch. 

KERRY CATTLE 

Kerry cattle originated in the Kerry mountains of west- 
ern Ireland, and are a natural product of the environment 
in which they have lived for centuries. They are one of 
the smallest of all breeds of cattle, the sparse grazing ground 
and the harsh climatic conditions working together to make 
the animals undersized. Bulls weigh from 800 to 1000 
pounds and mature cows weigh from 500 to 600 pounds. 
These figures vary according to care and food. While 
the cows are small, and on this account are not popular, 
this breed produces milk and butter economically and 
makes good returns for the feed consumed. The color of 
the breed is black, but red may occur. In general con- 
formation they incline toward the dairy type, but are not 
so extreme in this respect as the Jerseys, being short of 
leg, and strong through the heart. 

RED POLLED CATTLE 

History. — This breed of cattle is the principal dual pur- 
pose breed of cattle in America to-day and ranks very 
high in both milk and butter production. It originated 
in the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk, England. Back as 
far as 1778, there have been hornless red cattle in Norfolk 
county. It is thought that the " muley " cattle that 
were at one time common in America, and from which 
the so-called " muley " natives sprang, came from this 
source. The Suffolk red polled cattle were of the dairy 



128 BREEDS OF CATTLE 




Fig. 43. — Red Polled cow. 

type, and were noted for their milk yield, while those that 
were common in Norfolk had smaller bones, shorter 
legs, round barrels, good loins, and rather fine heads, which 
qualities made them good for meat production. In 1846, 
the two strains were combined to form the dual purpose 
cattle now known as Red Polled. The first regular im- 
portation was made into the state of New York in 1873, 
and since that time their spread over the country has been 
rather rapid. While they have never been popular in 
the corn belt, they are now widely distributed in some 
of the Western States. 

Characteristics. — Red Polled cattle are easily recog- 
nized by their solid red color and absence of horns. White 
is allowed on the belly and udder and the switch of the 
tail, but a solid color is preferred. In conformation they 
have not the extreme beef form of the beef breeds nor the 
pronounced dairy conformation of the dairy cattle. In 



DEVON CATTLE 129 

this country, they are tending more toward the dairy type 
than in England, because they are being developed more 
strongly along the milking lines. Some very good steers 
are annually shown at the International Live Stock Ex- 
hibition, but they have not yet succeeded in capturing any 
championship honors. For beef purposes, they are some- 
what coarse in the neck, high at the tail, thin in the 
thighs, and high in the region of the flank. From the 
standpoint of dairy conformation they are heavy along 
the back, and too thick in the thighs, although some of 
the cows are excellent milkers. The steers make very 
profitable gains and their carcasses make excellent meat. 

DEVON CATTLE 

History. — While Devon cattle are oftentimes classified 
with beef cattle, they have not been very popular in this 
country in competition with some of the more pronounced 
beef breeds. They originated in the county of Devon in 
western England near the border of Wales, where for 
many years red cattle have existed. The rough country, 
and the rather limited supply of food in that part of the 
island, tended to produce a hardy animal that was well 
adapted to these adverse conditions. Their history can 
be traced back as far as any of the improved breeds. The 
first well-known improver of the breed, Francis Quartly, 
began his work on these cattle in 1793. 

In course of time there have been two well-defined types 
evolved. The North Devon type is compact, hardy, well 
adapted to rough country, and the carcass is good for beef. 
The South Devon type is larger and coarser, and better 
adapted to the production of both beef and milk. 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 9 



130 BREEDS OF CATTLE 

They were introduced into America at an early date, the 
English colonists bringing them over as early as 1623. 
For many years they met with favor, and they are still 
raised in some of the Eastern States. The exhibits made at 
some of the fairs throughout the country show them to be 
a breed of great possibilities, but the fanciers have not made 
rapid progress in developing them and bringing their merits 
before the public. 

Characteristics. — The Devons are quite easily recog- 
nized by their solid red color, which may range from light 
to dark. They have orange rings around the eyes, with 
white on the tip of the tail and on the udder occasionally. 
The score card calls for a three-year-old weight of not less 
than 1400 pounds for the bull, and 1000 pounds for cows. 
In conformation the American animal is neither of extreme 
beef nor dairy type. 

EXERCISES 

1. What breeds of dairy cattle have black noses, tongues, 
horns, and hoofs ? 

2. Name all breeds of cattle either partially or wholly black. 
Make a list of the red breeds. 
On what breeds of cattle is white found ? 
Make a complete list of the hornless breeds of cattle. 
Classify the breeds of cattle as to the country from which 

they come. 

HOME PROJECT 

Study the home herd and those in the neighborhood for breed 
characteristics. See how many breeds are thus suggested in 
your neighborhood. It must be remembered that character- 
istics of two or more breeds may often be found in the same 
animal. 



CHAPTER VIII 

BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 

Sheep are classified according to their wool into the fine 
wool, the medium wool, and the long wool breeds. The 
medium wool and the long wool breeds constitute the 
mutton breeds. The breeds commonly belonging to the 
fine wool class are the American Merino, the Delaine 
Merino, and the Rambouillet. Those belonging to the 
medium wool class are the Shropshire, Oxford, Hampshire, 
Southdown, Cheviot, Suffolk, Dorset, and Tunis. The 
breeds belonging to the long wool class are the Lincoln, 
Leicester (pronounced Lester), Cotswold, Black Faced 
Highland, and Kent or Romney Marsh. 

Fine wool sheep do not mature until the age of three 
years, but the medium wool breeds are mature at the 
age of two years. 

THE FINE WOOL BREEDS 

American Merino. — This is the name applied to one 
type of the Merino sheep which originally came from Spain. 
In form, these sheep are of poor mutton type, having been 
bred for the fineness of wool alone. They are narrow over 
the back, sharp at the withers; and the legs, which stand 
close together, are crooked and often long. The skin is 
wrinkled and lies in folds, especially on the neck and in the 
region of the flank. In the western part of the country 

131 



132 



BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 




Fig. 44. — Merino ram. 



they have been bred to Mexican sheep to improve the 
quality of the wool of the latter. Merinos are hardy and 
can endure both the heat of the south and the cold of the 
north. They can be handled in large flocks, which is a 
decided advantage on the range. The rams have strong 
twisted horns, while the ewes are hornless. Rams weigh from 
100 to 175 pounds and ewes weigh from 80 to 100 pounds. 

The Delaine. — This breed has been developed in 
America by selecting from the larger Merinos the smoothest 
sheep with longest and coarsest wool. 

The wool has less oil and coarser crimp or kink than 
that of the American Merino. However, the quality of 
the mutton is higher and the lambs fatten and mature much 
better. The horned rams weigh from 140 to 200 pounds, 
while the hornless ewes weigh from 100 to 150 pounds. 



RAMBOUILLET SHEEP 



133 



Breeders of Delaines frequently select breeding stock from 
the ranks of the American Merino to obtain improvement 
in wool and from the Rambouillet to increase the size of 
their sheep. 

The Rambouillet. — This breed of sheep was developed 
in France near the village of Rambouillet, hence the name. 
The work of improvement was first carried on by the 
French Government. From France some good specimens 
were taken to Germany, where large flocks are now estab- 
lished and considerable improvement is still being made. 
These sheep are larger and smoother than the American 
Merino and have a mutton carcass superior to the other 
fine wool breeds. 

In America the Rambouillets were received from the first 
with much favor. The breed has made considerable head- 
way on the ranges because they can be herded in large 




Fig. 45. — Rambouillet ram. 



134 



BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 



flocks, produce a liberal clipping of good wool, and give a 
mutton carcass of fair quality. Rams of this breed weigh 
from 170 to 185 pounds and may be either horned or horn- 
less. The ewes are hornless and should weigh from 
140 to 165 pounds. Individuals, both male and female, 
may run much heavier than these weights. 



THE MEDIUM WOOL BREEDS 

The Shropshire. — The Shropshire is the most popular 
of the English breeds of sheep and is found not only in 
England, the United States, and Canada in large numbers, 
but wherever the influence of British agriculture is felt. 
The sheep are valuable for the mutton which they yield, 
and their heavy clippings of medium wool. So well de- 
veloped are both these characters in this breed, that Shrop- 
shire are often called dual purpose sheep. The rams 




Fig. 46. — Shropshire ram. 



SHROPSHIRE SHEEP 



135 



weigh about 225 pounds and the ewes about 175 pounds 
when mature. Ewes yield about 8 pounds of wool and 
rams about 1 2 pounds of wool at each clipping. 

The form of the Shropshire is that of a typical mutton 
sheep. The most distinguishing features of the breed are 




Fig. 47. — Shropshire ewe. 

the head and face. The wool grows down over the face 
so that the only parts of the head exposed are the ears and 
the tip of the nose. The wool also grows down on the legs, 
so that " Shropshire sheep are wool from the nose to the 
toes." The ears are small, short, and straight. The 
thickness of the wool around the head gives the ears the 
appearance of being shorter than they really are. The 
color of the exposed hair is dark brown and the skin is of a 
very healthy, bright pink color. The wool, while of medium 
thickness, is quite dense, and should have no tendency 
to part in clusters and curls. Shropshires have straight, 
strong, wide backs; short, wide, thick loins; and long, 



136 



BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 



level, wide rumps. A good development of the " leg o' 
mutton " is also necessary in good types. They do not 
thrive well in large flocks, but under reasonable care are 
quite hardy. They are sometimes called the farmer's 
ideal sheep. 

The Oxford. — These sheep originated in Oxfordshire, 
England, and were not recognized as a distinct breed until 




Fig. 48. — Oxford ram. 

1862, the first year they were awarded prizes at the Royal 
Show of England. They were developed through a desire 
on the part of some men to establish a breed that would 
combine high quality with large size, which was accom- 
plished by crossing the long wool Cotswold with the 
medium wool Hampshire and adding a slight infusion 
of Southdown blood. The result is a breed whose wool 
is the longest and coarsest of all the medium wool breeds 



OXFORD SHEEP 137 

and whose weight is the heaviest. They have never yet 
succeeded in defeating the Southdown and the Shropshire 
breeds in carcass competition. 

Oxfords have longer legs than other medium wool sheep. 
The color of the hair on the face is brown, sometimes with 
gray spots, somewhat lighter in color than the Shropshire; 
and the wool, while covering the head, does not meet on 
the face below the eyes. The ears are also much longer 
and coarser than those of the Shropshire. 

These sheep are distributed over the United States, 
particularly in the section east of the Mississippi and north 
of the Ohio River. They are not popular on the range, 
because they do not do well in large flocks and are not 
hardy enough for range conditions, but they are quite 
popular with the farmer who keeps a small flock. The 
ewes are prolific, and the lambs develop rapidly and attain 
a good weight at an early age, which makes them much 
admired by the stock buyer. Rams should weigh from 
250 to 350 pounds and ewes from 180 to 275 pounds. 

The Hampshire. — Hampshire sheep originated in Hamp- 
shire, England, and rank next to Oxfords in popularity. 
Rams weigh about 250 pounds when mature, and ewes 
from 185 to 195 pounds. These sheep are not so long- 
legged as the Oxfords. They have fine and compact fleeces, 
which are short and do not yield a great deal of wool. The 
hair is black, and the skin is deep purple in color. A great 
many of the lambs are born black, but after the fleece 
grows they become white. The face, not covered with wool, 
is black. The heavy Roman nose gives this sheep a coarse 
appearance. 

The breed is meeting with great favor in America be- 
cause the lambs mature early. They are prized highly for 



138 



BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 




Fig. 49. — Hampshire ewe. 



early spring trade and bring good prices. The mutton is 
of good quality and the ewes are very prolific and good 
milkers. On the range they are frequently desired for 
crossing with the Merino. Hampshire sheep are quite 
widely distributed over the world wherever sheep are 
raised. 

The Southdown. — The Southdown is the oldest es- 
tablished breed of mutton sheep. They originated in 
southeastern England upon the thin chalk soils in the low 
hill or down country. Over one hundred years ago these 
sheep existed pure, and through the efforts of two pro- 
gressive English farmers, John Ellman and Jonas Webb, 
they were improved, and became the favorite sheep of 
royalty, which distinction they have held to the present 
day. Some of the best sheep are produced near the city 



SOUTHDOWN SHEEP 



!39 



of Cambridge, England, the home of Jonas Webb, where 
stands a large monument erected to his memory, because 
of the valuable work he did in improving both sheep and 
cattle. 

Southdowns are the smallest of all the mutton breeds, 
and produce the finest quality of mutton. Both in this 
country and in England, they have captured more cham- 
pionship carcass prizes than any other breed of sheep. In 
their own country, reared under natural conditions, they 
are the hardiest of the medium wool breeds. 

In form, they are very plump, low down, and compact, 
and weigh very heavy because of their solidity. The wool 
is very dense and of good quality, being the finest of all 
the medium wools. It covers the top of the head and the 
forehead, but does not meet on the face below the eyes. 
The color of the hair on the face is a dingy gray, white 




Fig. 50. — Southdown ewe. 



140 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 

being very objectionable. No wool is found on the legs 
below the knees. 

These sheep are quite widely distributed over the world. 
They are valuable for improving the common stock of the 
country and for producing very fine mutton, but are not 
always popular with the farmer, because of their small size. 




Fig. 51. — Cheviot ewe. 



The Cheviot. — This breed developed in the Cheviot 
Hills of Scotland. Reared under natural conditions upon 
these rugged hills, sheep of great thrift and hardiness have 
resulted. Having been bred pure for generations, they 
come true to type and are very prepotent. 

The distinguishing features of Cheviots are clean, white 
faces of medium length; bright eyes; erect alert bear- 
ing; short, compact bodies covered with compact fleeces 



CHEVIOT SHEEP 141 

of clean, white color. The legs are short and straight, and 
the bones are flat, not rounded as is the case of the down 
breeds of England. The wool covers the neck very com- 
pactly, but leaves the ears, head, and face exposed and clean. 
The ears are held very erect, which gives to the sheep an 
alert appearance. 

Cheviots produce a fair clipping of very desirable, clean 
wool of medium quality and length. They are also prized 
for their mutton. While their meat does not possess the 
quality of the Southdown, it is much superior to that of 
some of the coarser down breeds of England. They are 
valuable for crossing with common stock and their hardi- 
ness makes them favorites where their good qualities are 
known. The ewes are prolific and make good mothers. 

Rams, bred in America, should weigh from 175 to 200 
pounds, and ewes about 150 pounds. Imported stock will 
weigh somewhat less. The American breeders have been 
selecting the more compact sheep, and have been paying 
more attention to their mutton than to their wool qualities. 

The Suffolk. — This breed originated in the county of 
Suffolk in the eastern part of England and is the result of 
a cross between native sheep and the Southdown breeds. 
The distinguishing features of the breed are the black, 
smooth face free from wool ; the hornless head ; the long, 
black, smooth legs, and long, rangy body covered with fine 
wool. They can easily be distinguished from the Hamp- 
shire sheep, which have heavier noses and a bolder and more 
alert appearance. 

The Dorset. — These sheep originated in the county of 
Dorset in the south of England. They are easily dis- 
tinguished from the other medium wool breeds by their 
horns. This is the only breed of sheep in America in which 



142 



BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 



both sexes are horned. In size they rank between the 
Shropshire and the Southdown, but have longer legs, and 
are not so uniform in conformation and quality. In their 
native country they have been kept pure longer than most 
breeds of English sheep. The rams weigh about 200 pounds 
and the ewes about 160 pounds each. 




Fig. 52. — Dorset ram. 

The hair of this breed is pure white, the skin pink, and 
the wool which is short but of good quality covers the body 
closely and compactly, the head and face only being free 
from wool. 

They are well distributed over the world. In this 
country they are popular because the ewes are very pro- 
lific, and will produce two crops of lambs per year. The 
mothers are good milkers and the lambs grow rapidly. 
They are very useful for producing winter lambs which 



LONG WOOL BREEDS 143 

may be ready for market at a time of the year when fresh 
lamb is a delicacy and brings high prices. 

The Tunis. — This breed originated in the upland region 
of Tunis in northern Africa. They are sometimes called 
" fat-tailed " sheep because the tail is broad, being five to 
ten inches wide. They were once raised for that reason, 
and very fat tails were sought in the breeding stock. They 
were first brought to this country in the latter part of the 
eighteenth century. The breed is generally hornless and 
the legs are brown or of tawny color. The wool is of 
variable color, and scant in quantity. It is for this reason 
that they are not received with great favor. The ewes are 
quite prolific, and the lambs are good for mutton purposes. 

At present they are being exploited for use in some of the 
semiarid sections in the southwestern part of the United 
States. 

THE LOXG WOOL BREEDS 

The long wool breeds of sheep are larger and coarser 
than the medium wool breeds, and have longer legs. 
While they fatten readily, the meat is coarser and lacks 
the marbling found in the carcasses of the medium wool 
sheep. The body is long and rangy and the fleece, while 
having longer staple, lacks compactness. The long wools 
are generally developed in low flat regions where there is 
an abundance of rainfall and luscious pasture. They are 
not so hardy as the medium wool breeds and the open- 
ness of their fleeces makes them poorly adapted for climates 
where much cold rain and snow falls. 

Lincoln Sheep. — The Lincoln sheep originated in the 
county of Lincoln, one of the richest agricultural sections 
in all England, where the land is very low and flat. The 



144 



BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 















*JR?5 






^j 










• 

i 3 ■" * 


'.'. . . 


, ■■; 






'.■... 


' '' , " ■ 




■k'-' 


JBBlli 


wk-% 


fj-: 


- 



Fig- 53- — Lincoln ewe. 



breed of Lincoln sheep is noted for the length, strength, 
quality, and luster of its wool. 

They are one of the largest of the long wool breeds. 
Mature rams weigh not less than 250 pounds, and the ewes 
not less than 200 pounds. The color of the hair is white, 
the head is large and hornless, the feet and legs are large 
and coarse. The wool which forms in ringlets is not found 
on the belly but covers the body, and forms a tuft upon the 
top of the head. 

They were imported to America at an early date but are 
not widely distributed. Their mutton qualities are not 
the best, the tendency being to produce too much fat which 
makes a soft, blubbery carcass. 

Leicester Sheep. — Leicester sheep originated in the 
county of Leicester, near the central part of England, and 
were one of the first breeds of sheep to receive systematic 
improvement by selection and breeding. Robert Bakewell, 



LEICESTER SHEEP 



145 



a man who did much to improve cattle, was an improver 
of the Leicester sheep. 

There are now two types of Leicester sheep : the Bake- 
well, or Dishley, type and the Border Leicester. 

The Border Leicester are the most favored in this country. 
They developed near the border line between England and 
Scotland, and are tall sheep that fatten readily. Mature 
rams weigh not less than 250 pounds and ewes 200 pounds. 
The face and legs are free from wool and the hair is white. 
The fleece, while quite long, is of good quality and hangs 
from the body in ringlets. 

The Bakewell, or Dishley, type has a tuft of wool on 
the forehead, and the skin has a bluish tinge. Both types 
of Leicesters are hornless. 

The wool produced by Leicesters is medium fine and of 
fair length, but the mutton is inferior. They can be crossed 











jtftftiL. 








~ i v^jyir* ■ .^Br " "^- ^h 


jk 






-f>^l " 








-u2al 


wSP*tfa L 








4 . 




t£. \* V^J 1 \ & *^ 


■\ ***>> j!**— '' *:^H 


L~ - U 




I 




1 




• /-V 


.. ^ 



Fig. 54. — Leicester sheep. 
T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. IO 



146 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 

with some of the medium wool breeds to good advantage. 
They are not good rustlers, neither are they good grazers, 
nor hardy. They were imported into this country at an 
early date and have received much improvement at the 
hands of American breeders. 




Fig- 55- — Cotswold ram. 

The Cotswold. — The Cotswold is one of the oldest breeds 
of English sheep. They are a heavy breed, the mature rams 
weighing not less than 250 pounds, and the ewes not less 
than 200 pounds. They are easily distinguished from the 
other long wool breeds by the locks of wool which hang 
down over their faces. The fleece is very long and hangs 
from the body in ringlets. They are quite hardy and do well 
on good pasture land. Their bodies are compact and they 
fatten readily, but the mutton is not of the best quality. 



BLACK FACE SHEEP 



147 



These sheep were early imported to America and met 
with considerable favor, because of their ruggedness, pro- 
lificacy, the amount of wool they produce, and the size 
of the lambs. Good Cotswolds will shear from 16 to 18 
pounds of wool, and the lambs will weigh over 100 pounds 
at the age of 1 2 months. 

The Black Face Highland. — The Black Face Highland 
sheep, sometimes known as " Black Face," are to be found 
in the Highlands of Scotland where they originated, and in 
the mountains of Ireland to which country they have been 









Kdk> • i 'Ai6»fiC''^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^r^'* 




iMbCw 


M>j* -* E ^ J*^ "7, ^^^^ 






£ffi-I ' * B^ ,«. ■^^j*' 


4#*^^w'1^H 




Br'w- 


• *^lr 


[»^*Jr V ^^H 


3* w 




t. * V 1 


Hi / / 






■*!'*'/> 




*t V 1 


^*T»V J* Jr9 , m , 




h ifcsl 


• ^Jillil'L ; { 


ill 
















IHflKS 







Fig. 56. — Black Face Highland ewe. 

imported. They are said to be one of the oldest breeds 
of sheep in Scotland and are particularly adapted to with- 
stand the hardships of the regions in which they live. They 
are easily distinguished by their long shaggy fleeces of wool, 
which although compact is generally coarse. The hair 



148 



BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 




GOATS 149 

on the face is black or mottled gray and black and both 
males and females have horns. 

These sheep are remarkable for their constitutions ; even 
the young lambs, as soon as born, are able to withstand 
the inclemency of the weather because of the fleece which 
covers them at birth. They live in the mountainous sec- 
tions, out of doors all of the time in all sorts of weather, 
but seek shelter behind crags and projecting rocks when 
bad storms prevail. The mutton which they produce is 
said to be of good quality. Although they have much to 
commend them, they are not very common in this country. 

Kent, or Romney Marsh. — This is one of the largest 
breeds of sheep and originated in the lowlands of the county 
of Kent in the southeastern part of England. They are 
remarkable for their ability to thrive upon low, wet land. 
Under these conditions they attain great size, being sur- 
passed in this respect only by the Lincoln sheep. They 
are long and rather rangy sheep, having white, broad 
faces. They are low set on short, thick, strong legs and 
strong feet. The wool although long is rather fine. 

GOATS 

In general characteristics, goats resemble sheep. They 
are not so generally raised in America as in foreign countries, 
but will probably be more common as the country be- 
comes more thickly settled and the rougher sections more 
generally used. 

In this country, goats are raised both for their fleeces 
and for milk production. More are raised for the former 
than for the latter purpose. 

Angora Goats. — While the Angora goat is grown pri- 
marily for its fleece, the better the form of the body the 



150 BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 

more desirable is the goat. The color of the skin is a bright 
pink and the hair is white. The face is free from fleece 
with the exception of a tuft upon the forehead. The fleece 
forms in lustrous ringlets, and may grow to a length of ten 
inches. The offensive odor of the common goat is absent 
in the Angora breed ; and the odor in a fleece of mohair is 
even milder than that in a fleece of common wool. This 
fleece or mohair is useful for the manufacture of felting 
material and coarse plushes. Practically all the cushions 
of car seats are made from mohair, the best of which comes 
from the younger goats. There is also a considerable 
demand for the meat of the Angora goat. 

Goats are useful in the clearing of brush land. They 
have good digestive systems and will thrive upon young 
twigs and shoots as well as upon grass. The skins of 
goats are used for robes and rugs. Leather made there- 
from is used in the manufacture of gloves, purses, shoes, 
and other articles. 

Milch Goats. — The milch goat, often called " the 
poor man's cow," is used in many foreign countries. 
Milch goats can be fed and cared for more cheaply than 
cows, and for the feed given them, they return liberal 
amounts of milk. The milk is used for immediate con- 
sumption and in the manufacture of cheese. One who is 
used to drinking cow's milk does not relish the milk of 
goats because of its strong smell and taste. 

There are several breeds of milch goats which derive 
their names from the localities where they originated. 
Some of these breeds are Nubian, Maltese, New Mexican, 
Spanish Maltese, Toggenburg, White Appenzeller, White 
Saanen, and Black-necked Valaisan. The last four are 
Swiss breeds. 



EXERCISES 151 

EXERCISES 

1. What breeds of sheep have black or dark faces? Dark 
legs? Covered faces ? Bare faces? 

2. How do you distinguish a Hampshire from a Southdown? 

3. What are the essential points of difference between an 
Oxford and a Cotswold? 

4. Arrange some scheme of classification by which you 
will be able to distinguish the various breeds of sheep on sight. 

5. What are the principal breeds of sheep raised in your 
locality? 

HOME PROJECT 

When lambs are less than four weeks old, select and mark 
two that are apparently the best -mutton types and two of the 
poorest for this purpose. Weigh all four animals every two 
weeks and keep records of their growth as a test of your judg- 
ment in selecting young stock. 



CHAPTER IX 

BREEDS OF SWINE 

Swine breeding is widely distributed throughout the 
United States. The principal breeds of the lard type are 
the Poland China, the Duroc Jersey, the Berkshire, and 
the Chester White. The minor breeds of this type include 
the Small Yorkshire, Victoria Swine, Suffolk Swine, the 
Essex, and the Cheshire. Berkshires are sometimes classi- 
fied as belonging to the bacon breeds, but in the United 
States they are distinctly of the lard type. The breeds 
of the bacon type are the Large Yorkshire, the Tamworth, 
and the Hampshire or Thin Rind Hog. 

THE POLAND CHINA 

History. — America is responsible for the development 
of most of the breeds of lard hogs. This is because of the 
large amount of Indian corn produced and fed to hogs in 
this country, since the feeding of Indian corn tends to pro- 
duce much fat, the distinguishing characteristic of this 
type. The Poland China, which originated in Ohio about 
1840, is one of the most popular breeds. In its early de- 
velopment, a great many breeds of swine were called upon 
to furnish blood, the commonest ones being the Berkshire, 
the Irish Grazier, and the China. The final product was 
a hog that matured early, fattened off at almost any age, 
and did well on the one-sided ration of corn and water. 

152 



POLAND CHINA HOG 153 

Characteristics. — This breed is the accepted type for 
the lard hog and is characterized by a compact form ; a 
well-arched, wide back ; wide, thick loins ; long, wide, and 
rather rounding rump; and deep, well-developed hams. 




Fig. 58. — Poland China hogs. 

The face is short and slightly dished. The ear is one of the 
marks of perfection and a point to which breeders pay con- 
siderable attention. This should be of good quality, erect 
at the head, and should break downward about one third of 
the distance from the tip. Six white points, a white face, 
white tip at the end of the tail, and four white feet, are also 
considered essential. In the show yard, the type sought is 
a blocky, compact hog of medium to large size that carries 
much flesh and gives evidence of being an early maturing 
animal. 

THE DUROC JERSEY 

History. — This breed of hogs originated in New Jersey, 
where they were called " Jersey Reds." They were orig- 



154 



BREEDS OF SWINE 




Fig. 59. — Duroc Jersey hog. 



inally large and coarse, with large pendulous ears. Later, 
they were crossed with a strain of red hogs developed in 
New York state, that were called Durocs. When the 
two breeds were blended together, the new breed was called 
Duroc Jersey. 

Characteristics. — At the present time, they are the only 
red breed of lard hogs in this country. In type, they are 
similar to the Poland China, and it might be said that 
Duroc Jerseys are red Poland Chinas, although the fanciers 
of both breeds would not like the comparison. The color 
preferred is cherry red. Pigs that are exposed to the sun 
in the summer time become sandy in color. Black spots 
over the body are objectionable, and if found in too large 
numbers, they disqualify the animals in the show ring. 

Duroc Jersey hogs are good grazers and are also well 
adapted to following cattle in the feed lot. For hogs 
of the lard type, they are prolific and they cross well with 
other breeds. 



BERKSHIRE HOGS 



155 




156 BREEDS OF SWINE 



THE BERKSHIRE 



History. — Berkshire hogs derive their name from Berk- 
shire in England, where the breed originated. In 1823 
they were introduced into the United States, and were 
brought into Canada in 1838. 

Characteristics. — The Berkshire can be easily recognized 
by the shape of the face and snout and the erect ears. 
The face is decidedly dished and the snout is rather short, 
giving the animal a " pug-faced " appearance. The color 
is black with white feet, white face, and white at the tip of 
the tail. There may be an occasional splash of white on 
the arm or thigh, but more white than this is considered 
objectionable. Berkshires vary more or less in type. To 
a great extent the type is determined by the market de- 
mands of the countries in which they are bred and by the 
methods of individual breeders. The Berkshire in this 
country is decidedly a lard hog, although in Canada, where 
corn is scarce, it is more of the bacon type. 

Berkshires are quite popular with swine fanciers. They 
are somewhat longer and straighter along the back than the 
Poland Chinas and the Durocs, and, being more active in 
disposition than these two breeds, are good rustlers on 
pasture. Berkshires of the accepted type are quite pro- 
lific. The litters are large and the females are good mothers. 
In some animals there is a tendency to be somewhat weak 
around the heart girth and in the pasterns. In selecting 
Berkshires, one should guard against these weaknesses. 

Berkshires mature at an early age. Pigs one year old 
weigh about 300 pounds. They fatten readily and are 
capable of making gains cheaply. The meat of Berkshires 
is of good quality and has a large proportion of lean to fat. 



CHESTER WHITE HOG 157 

THE CHESTER WHITE 

History. — Chester White hogs originated in Chester 
County, Pennsylvania, where large white hogs were common 
for many years and from which region the breed derived 
its name. The breed was improved by crossing with a 
strain of more refined Chinese hogs. There are now two 
strains known as Todd's Improved Chester Whites and 
the Ohio Improved Chester Whites, both of which have 
been developed by selecting and mating some of the best 
of the breed. 

Characteristics. — This breed is the largest breed of 
lard hogs. In the show ring, judges favor the compact, 
low down, smooth type, but farmers throughout the country 
who favor the Chester White for breeding purposes, se- 
lect the coarser and more rangy animals, because hogs 
of this type raise larger litters of pigs. 

These hogs should be pure white, no black hair being 
permissible, although bluish spots are often found on the 




Fig. 61. — Chester White boar. 



158 BREEDS OF SWINE 

skin ; these are considered objectionable. The body is long 
with a tendency to be high on the legs, and the bones and 
hair are often coarse. The head is quite long and the ear is 
long and pendulous. These coarse characteristics do not 
appeal to the judge in the show ring. 

MINOR BREEDS 

The Small Yorkshire. — The Small Yorkshire is a breed 
which originated in England, where the hogs are known 
as the Small White. They are the smallest breed in 
America, and while they mature quite early, they are not 
very useful for improving other breeds. Their bodies are 
compact, their legs are short, the coat is white and curly, and 
the nose is upturned giving the face a decidedly dished outline. 

Victoria Swine. — These swine originated in the United 
States, but have never attained much popularity. They 
are white in color and of medium size. The hair is smooth 
and straight, the face dished, and the ear, which is of 
medium size, is erect and straight. The Victoria is a lard 
hog, and while it may be as useful as any other breed for the 
production of meat and for crossing purposes, it has not 
attained wide popularity. 

Suffolk Swine. — This is another English breed. Like the 
Small Yorkshire, it is white, small, and of the lard type. 
It has never attained much popularity in this country. 

The Essex. — The Essex, developed in the county of 
Essex, England, is one of the smallest breeds of lard hogs. 
It is coal black in color, has fine bones and hair, and 
matures very early. While it may be useful for crossing 
with coarser breeds to produce quality, it is not very popu- 
lar with the American farmer. 



YORKSHIRE HOG 159 

The Cheshire. — The Cheshire is a lard hog of medium 
size. The color is white, the face slightly dished, the ears 
small and erect, and the shoulders and hams are usually 
well developed. The quality of meat is quite as good as 
that from any of the breeds of lard hogs. This breed 
originated in the northern part of New York and is simply 
a development of the Yorkshire hogs that were early in- 
troduced into that state. 

THE LARGE YORKSHIRE 

History. — The Large Yorkshire, or the Large White 
as it is sometimes called in its native country, England, 
is the most popular hog of Great Britain. It possesses 
the finest bacon qualities and stands first among the 
bacon breeds of swine. The superb bacon of Ireland and 
Denmark comes from these hogs. They are found in large 
numbers in Canada, to which country they have been im- 
ported to improve the bacon qualities of the Canadian 
hogs In the United States, they are not so numerous as 




Fig. 62. — Yorkshire boar. 



160 BREEDS OF SWINE 

some of the lard type breeds. In this country, where 
swine producing centers have been extended beyond the 
corn belt, these hogs are increasing in numbers. 

Characteristics. — ■ This is one of the largest breeds of 
hogs. The color is pure white, black or blue spots in the 
skin being objectionable. The hair is smooth and straight ; 
the sides are long, straight, and free from wrinkles, and the 
back is straight and of medium width. The face is dished 
like that of the Berkshire, but is not so short, conforming 
more to the bacon type. Although of large size, the 
Yorkshires retain a great deal of quality and smooth- 
ness. The shoulders are smooth, the chest strong, and the 
bones fine but strong. The females are very prolific and 
are good mothers. 

THE TAMWORTH 

History. — The Tamworth, which ranks well with the 
Large Yorkshire in size and ability to produce bacon of the 
best quality, also originated in England. While these hogs 
have not received so much recognition in the bacon pro- 
ducing centers of Europe, they are quite extensively raised 
in Canada, and to a lesser degree in the United States. 

Characteristics. — After once being seen, the Tamworth 
hogs are easily recognized. They are red in color, a, cherry 
red being preferred, although some of them become chest- 
nut, and in some cases the color is so dark as to appear al- 
most black. The face is very different from that of the 
Large Yorkshire, being long and narrow, and the nose is 
exceptionally long and straight. Its appearance has much 
to do in prejudicing many farmers against the breed. The 
ears are long and inclined slightly forward with no tendency 
to droop. When compared with lard hogs, the legs of the 



HAMPSHIRE HOG 



161 




Fig. 63. — Tamworth boar. 

Tamworth appear abnormally long and the hams small. 
The sides are long with firm flesh, and the back, while not 
especially wide, is well covered. General smoothness 
throughout characterizes the animal. 

They are a late maturing breed, but are very prolific, 
producing large litters of healthy, active pigs. The cross- 
ing of a Tamworth with one of the lard breeds increases 
the size of the litters and improves the quality of the pork. 



THE HAMPSHIRE OR THIN RIND HOG 

History. — The Hampshire breed is of English origin, 
being first developed in Hampshire, England. In this 
country these hogs are becoming quite popular in parts of 
the corn belt, where the tendency seems to be to develop 
them more and more toward the lard type. 

Characteristics. — This breed is easily recognized by its 
peculiar markings. It is black with a wide white band 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. II 



162 



BREEDS OF SWINE 




HAMPSHIRE HOG 163 

around the middle of the body, the white belt including 
both front legs. The animals are usually classed as bacon 
hogs, but because they are shorter than the Large York- 
shire and the Tamworth, they do not furnish such long 
sides of bacon. Because of their shortness and their thin- 
ness of covering they are sometimes classed between the 
bacon and the lard types. Besides their peculiar markings 
they have other distinguishing characteristics. The face 
is straight and narrow; the ear is straight and inclines 
forward slightly. The legs are longer than those of the 
lard type hog, and they are deficient in the region of the 
ham. The back is slightly arched, but lacks the width 
shown in the lard hog. The flesh of the Hampshire is of 
high quality. It is fine grained and has considerable lean. 
Hampshires are hardy and they are good grazers. 

EXERCISES 

1. What breeds of swine have dished faces ? Straight faces ? 
Long noses? 

2. Name the black breeds of swine ; the white breeds ; the 
red breeds. 

3. Name the principal breeds of the lard type ; of the bacon 
type. 

4. Why are most of the hogs of the United States of the 
lard type? 

5. In what respects does the lard type of swine differ from 
the bacon type? 

6. Which breeds of swine are raised in your home locality? 
Which breed is most popular ? 

7. How do you distinguish between the Chester White and 
the small and large Yorkshires ? 

8. Make a list of the breeds of swine having erect ears; 
drooping ears. 






1 64 BREEDS OF SWINE 

9. Arrange a table of breed characteristics by which you can 
recognize the various breeds of swine at sight. 

HOME PROJECT 

From a litter of pigs select two that give promise of being 
the best in the litter. 

By frequent weighing of these animals and recording the 
weights, check your judgment in comparison with all the rest 
of the pigs in the litter. 



CHAPTER X 

JUDGING CATTLE 

The judging of cattle should be considered under three 
main heads, namely, beef, dairy, and dual purpose cattle. 
The dual purpose type of cattle falls naturally between 
the beef and the dairy types. 

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 

The profitable beef animal is one that will return the 
largest amount of good meat in proportion to its live weight. 
The market will pay more for some cuts than for others, be- 
cause the meat consumers have preferences for particular 
cuts. Experience of the butcher has taught us that a good 
beef animal must have a conformation upon which is 
possible the greatest development of high priced cuts of 
meat. 

High Priced Cuts. — The highest priced meat is on the 
back in the region of the loin, that part of the animal imme- 
diately in front of the projecting hip points. Next to this 
just back of the shoulders is another cut of good meat. The 
hindquarters also produce meat that sells for a good price. 

Cheap Cuts. — The head is practically all waste material. 
The neck forms cheap meat, and that in the region of the 
belly or underline is also sold for a low price. 

Waste Material. — The legs are waste material so far as 
meat is concerned, and a great deal more waste material 

165 



1 66 JUDGING CATTLE 

comes from the digestive tract and its contents. When 
an animal is slaughtered, the part that is retained for meat 
is termed the " carcass," and the waste material is termed 
" offal." The butcher is interested in getting an animal 
that will produce, when slaughtered, a high percentage of 
carcass and a low percentage of offal. The producer of the 
beef animal is interested in fulfilling, in so far as is possible, 
the demands of the butcher. 

What the Butcher Demands. — The butcher desires an 
animal that has a small head, small bones, short legs, and a 
small paunch. The animal should also have a wide thick 
back, a wide deep loin, and well-developed hindquarters. 
The man who is to feed the steer to sell to the butcher looks 
for an animal that promises to fulfill these demands. 

What the Feeder Demands. — The form of the animal 
sought by the man who feeds beef cattle will vary somewhat 
from the standard of the butcher. While the feeding steer 
should possess such desirable qualities as a straight back 
and well-developed quarters, it of necessity differs from the 
ideal of the butcher in that it should have a well-developed, 
wide head ; thick neck ; large heart girth ; a roomy paunch, 
and rather strong bone. The feeding steer must possess 
these points, because the feeding period is trying to the 
health of the animal, and strength and constitution are 
essential. The feeding steer must have a large paunch so 
as to have sufficient capacity for feed. 

What the Breeder Demands. — The breeding animal 
should not only conform in type to the accepted type for 
the butcher, but sex and breed characters should also be 
emphasized in the breeding animal. In the bull the head 
and neck should be strong and somewhat heavier than the 
butcher demands, and the development of bone and muscle 



BEEF BREEDS 



167 



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' "Murai 




at "t^" - 




Hll : ^H 


B' a 


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1 JSP V M 


w 




' rs* "•*»/?! ™*"W* J ! v 






':: . ' : 



mHhUihiS 















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■IP* ^fll 


HP,JB 


IP>fJPr* iJ^j sy 




Et* 




IS 


f ■ 


OJPl 


fff. ' > HI w 



















Fig. 65. — Beef breeds. From top to bottom : Galloway, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, 

Shorthorn. 



1 68 JUDGING CATTLE 

should be greater. These features indicate ability to trans- 
mit these attributes to his offspring. Besides his masculine 
features, the bull should have a straight wide back, wide 
thick loin, good rump, and be well let down in the thigh, 
low set and deep. 

The cow should be somewhat refined about the head and 
neck, and show refinement also in the bone and muscular 
development. She should also be wider in the rear quarters 
than the bull. Besides all the good characteristics that 
belong to the cow, she should also have the attributes of the 
butcher animal. 

Besides the special sex characters which distinguish the 
cow from the bull, breeding animals should also conform in 
type to some particular breed, and as each breed has special 
characters of its own, it remains for the judge to learn the 
attributes of each particular breed before he can lay claim 
to proficiency in judging breeding animals. 

The Form of the Beef Animal. — The form of the good 
beef animal should be deep, broad, and low set, with straight 
top and underline. Viewed from the side, the top line and 
the bottom line should be parallel ; the vertical line at the 
rear from the pin bones to the hocks and that in front from 
the brisket upward should be parallel, so that viewed from 
the side, the steer should show a rectangular form. Viewed 
from the rear, the back should appear broad and flat, and 
the sides of the steer should be parallel so that a cross sec- 
tion of the body would appear as a somewhat flattened 
circle. The general form should be one that contributes 
to the greatest compactness. 

Quality. — Every beef animal, whether it be already 
fattened or a feeder, must have general or inherited quality 
which is indicated by the fineness of bone and the fineness of 



QUALITY IN BEEF CATTLE 



i6q 




Fig. 66. — Grand champion steer. International Live Stock Show. 



skin and its pliability. A fine, heavy, mossy coat of hair 
is also desirable, as it indicates thrift and constitution. 
Fineness of skin indicates fineness of meat fiber. Pliabil- 
ity of skin indicates that the animal is in a good thrifty con- 
dition, that it will do well on a fattening ration and finish off 
well. Fineness of bone shows that the animal has fine fiber 
throughout the body, and that the animal will have less 
waste when killed. While the butcher desires fine bone, 
the feeding steer may be too refined and not strong and 
vigorous enough to feed out well. 

Finish. — Quality is also used to mean " finish " in the 
animal. The feeder says that finish is the quality one must 
feed into the animal. The market offers more money per 
pound for the " finished " animal than for the thin animal, 
because the finished animal will not only dress a higher 
percentage of salable carcass, but the meat itself is more 



170 JUDGING CATTLE 

palatable and nutritious. Fat tissues contain less water 
than lean meat tissues, so that as the animal gets fat the per- 
centage of water in the carcass decreases. The buyer can 
afford to pay more for the fat animal than for the thin one, 
because he pays for less water; and his customers prefer 
to eat the finished meat which has been made tender by the 
fattening process. 

In looking for finish the judge "handles" the animal. If 
the flesh is soft and spongy he decides that the animal is yet 
unfinished or has been overdone. The value of a carcass 
depends upon the " marbling " of meat, which means a 
mixture of fat and lean somewhat resembling streaks in 
marble. If the animal is overdone, there will be too high 
a percentage of fat, which is undesirable and which lowers 
the value of the carcass. The animal should be evenly 
covered and the flesh should be firm because this means 
that the flesh will make good meat. Often the animal 
is inclined to be "patchy," that is, its fat will be deposited 
in patches. These patches are often found around the tail 
head, and on cattle of poor type the flesh collects around the 
points of the hips. 

Style and Temperament. — In style the steer should 
be active and upstanding, and not sluggish in temperament. 
The laying on of fat is dependent upon the activity of the 
animal, and if he appears sluggish or inactive it may indicate 
poor physical condition and inability to utilize the ration to 
the best advantage. 

A great deal is said concerning the temperament of the 
beef animal. While the animal should be quiet, this does 
not mean that he should be sluggish. If too nervously 
inclined, the animal may move about too much, yet some of 
the best feeders are most nervous and finish the cheapest 



PARTS OF THE BODY 171 

and best if quietly handled. The beef steer must have what 
is known as a phlegmatic temperament. This means that he 
must be docile enough so that he will consume great quanti- 
ties of food and place the surplus in the form of fat upon his 
body. This in turn depends upon type and quality. In 
the case of the beef animal as well as the dairy animal, 
temperament is secondary to type and quality. 

Head and Neck. — The head and neck of the beef animal 
are peculiar to the type, and experienced judges can almost 
determine the value of the animal by looking at its head and 
neck. The muzzle should be of good size, indicating strength ; 
a large mouth indicates capacity, thin lips indicate quality, 
and large nostrils indicate breathing capacity and constitu- 
tion. The eyes should be clear, indicating health, and placid, 
indicating a quiet disposition. A short face indicates that 
the body of the animal is short and compact. Ears of mod- 
erate size indicate that the animal is free from coarseness, 
and fine texture of the ear shows that the quality of the 
animal is good. A short neck indicates compactness and 
lessens the amount of cheap meat. Thickness of the neck, 
while it increases the weight, is essential because it is always 
associated with the desired thickness of body. 

Forequarters : Shoulders. — In the region of the fore- 
quarters, one looks for smoothness and compactness. The 
neck should blend gently into the body of the animal. The 
region where the shoulder and neck meet is known as the 
" shoulder vein," and fullness in this region means that the 
neck and shoulder blend well. The shoulder should be well 
covered, smooth, and compact on top. Width at the top of 
the shoulders is desirable, but it often happens that the 
shoulders are too wide. This gives the animal an appear- 
ance of coarseness, and the shoulders are likely to be too 



172 



JUDGING CATTLE 



loosely knit at the top. Width in the region of the breast 
is desirable also in the beef animal. 

The brisket is the name applied to the point of the breast 
bone together with the flesh covering this region. While the 



■SPRING of RIB 
-BACK >i 




MUZZLED 




Fig. 67. — Parts of a heavy steer. 



brisket is one of the cheaper parts of the animal, fullness 
and prominence in this region is desired, because if the ani- 
mal is deficient in one part it is likely to be deficient in other 
parts. Dewlap is the term applied to the loose skin that 
is found on the lower side of the neck extending from the 
lower jaw to the brisket. The amount of dewlap varies 
with the breed. A light dewlap is desired. The front legs 
should be short and straight and set wide apart. They 
should be fine without appearance of weakness. Coarse 
bones are undesirable. 



PARTS OF THE BODY 



173 



The Body : Chest. — In the region of the chest the animal 
should be full, deep, and wide, providing space for the heart 
and lungs located therein. The chest is one of the most 
important points in the make-up of the animal. An animal 

COUPLING 




^Mi^ 



Fig. 68. — Side view of a heavy steer. 

with a small chest is unable to thrive so well through the 
feeding period. 

The girth is the distance around the body measured just 
back of the shoulders. The larger the girth the better the 
animal. 

The fore flank is located immediately back of the fore 
legs. In the well-finished steer, the elbow joint is almost 
concealed. 

The Crops. — The crops x is the region immediately back 
of the top of the shoulders. This region should be well 
filled up so that there is no depression. 

1 The Americans and the British do not agree as to the location of the 
crops. The Scotch and English schools state that the crops refers to the out- 
cropping of the tops of the shoulders of the animal. What the Americans 
call crops is called chine by the British. The usage as accepted by the 
American schools has been accepted and employed here. 



174 JUDGING CATTLE 

Ribs. — The ribs spring from the backbone and in the 
beef animal are well arched and extend well out from it, 
making a round and deep barrel. The ribs should be close 
together and well covered with flesh. Since upon the 
arching of the ribs depends the amount of meat the back will 
carry, the spring of the ribs is very important. The flat 
ribbed animal is never a good feeder. 

Back. — The back is the most important part to be con- 
sidered in judging the steer. Here are located the best cuts 
of meat, and here the judge gets his first impressions of the 
value of the animal. Breadth and straightness of back 
should be carefully considered. The broader the back the 
more meat the animal will be able to carry. Straightness of 
back indicates strength, and the covering of flesh upon the 
back denotes the finish of the animal. 

Loin. — The loin is the region that lies between the last 
ribs and the points of the hips. This is the region of the 
highest priced cuts of meat, and great width and thickness 
of loin is desirable. The loin should be short and com- 
pact. An animal long in the • coupling is never a good 
feeder and seldom produces a large proportion of high- 
priced cuts. 

Flank. — The flank lies in front of the hind legs. This 
should be well let down so that the underline will be straight. 
If the animal is high in this region he is not only a poor 
feeder but the rear quarters will not be large enough to pro- 
duce a goodly amount of round steak. Thickness of flank 
indicates finish. This region is one of the last places to 
fatten, and if the steer is well filled in this part he is carrying 
considerable flesh. 

Hindquarters. — The hips of the steer should be smoothly 
covered. Projecting hips belong to the dairy cow and are 



THE SCORE CARD 175 

undesirable in the meat producing animal. Steers with 
projecting hips are hard to fatten and do not finish smoothly. 

The rump lies back of the hips. From this region some 
very good cuts of meat are obtained. Length and width 
here are desirable. A sloping rump is objectionable, because 
it detracts from the form of the animal. If too high at the 
tail head, the rump is likely to be narrow and the tail head 
patchy and prominent. 

The sharp bones at either side of the tail head are called 
pin bones. These should be far apart to conform to the 
general width of the animal, and should be smoothly covered 
with flesh. 

The thighs consist of the thigh bones and the meat on the 
outside of them. In this region, the steer should be plump, 
wide, and deep. Even in the thin animal, one should look 
for well-developed muscles. 

The twist is the name applied to the muscles on the inside 
of the thigh bones. In this region look for plumpness and 
depth. The thighs and twist taken together constitute the 
quarters of the animal from which the round steaks are cut. 
Fullness in the quarters is very desirable. 

USE OF THE SCORE CARD 

The score card is always made use of by the student of 
live stock judging, but it is seldom used by the expert in the 
show ring. The total score for any animal is 100. While 
animals may approach perfection, none attain it, so that a 
score of 100 is impossible. In scoring live stock no cuts 
should be less than one fourth of one point for imperfections. 

When the points and their relative value have once been 
fixed in mind the score card may be dispensed with and the 
animals judged by direct comparison. 



176 



JUDGING CATTLE 



BEEF CATTLE 
SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — 25 POINTS 

Weight, estimated in lbs 

Weight 

Form, straight top line and underline; deep, 

broad, low set 

Quality, firm handling ; hair fine ; skin pliable ; 

fine bone : evenly covered with firm flesh . . . 

Style, active, upstanding 

Temperament, quiet, docile 

HEAD AND NECK — 8 POINTS 

Muzzle, good size, mouth large ; lips thin, nos- 
trils large 

Eyes, large, clear, placid 

Face, short, quiet expression 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size, fine texture 

Neck, thick, short, throat clean 

FORE QUARTERS — 14 POINTS 

Shoulder Vein, full 

Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, 
snug 

Breast, wide; brisket prominent 

Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping 

Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine, 
smooth 

BODY — 28 POINTS 

Chest, full, deep, wide ; girth, large ; fore-flank 

full 

Crops, full, even with shoulders 

Ribs, deep, arched, thickly fleshed 

Back, broad, straight, evenly fleshed 

Loin, thick, broad 

Flank, full, even with underline 

HINDQUARTERS— 25 POINTS 

Hips, smoothly covered ; distance apart in pro- 
portion with other parts 

Rump, long, even, wide; tail head smooth, not 
patchy 

Pin Bones, not prominent, far apart 

Thighs, full, wide, deep 

Twist, deep, plump 

Legs, straight, short; shank fine, smooth 

Total 



Possible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 


Corrected 































































































































DAIRY CATTLE 177 

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

It is harder to become a good judge of dairy cattle than of 
beef cattle. While one may judge quite accurately the 
percentage of carcass a steer will return, and the quality 
of the same by the general quality and condition of the 
animal, he can only guess as to how much milk a cow will 
give and what will be the percentage of butter fat in her 
milk. The scales and the Babcock test are the two best 
means of judging dairy cows, but these appliances are not 
used in the show ring, where animals are judged according 
to type. Carefully selecting and retaining for breeding 
purposes cows with good records for a great number of 
years has developed animals of a certain type that are best 
suited for the production of milk and milk solids. The type 
of these animals is the " dairy type," and the man who is 
most proficient in recognizing the points making up the 
dairy type is the man who is the good judge of dairy cattle. 
However, a great deal of a cow's worth depends upon her 
individuality, and there are no points on the surface of the 
animal that can be made to indicate the animal's individ- 
uality. This is why the best cow in the show ring is often 
second best in yield of milk. 

What Determines Dairy Type. — Milk production is a 
function of the cow performed by certain organs. The 
four principal systems upon which milk production de- 
pends are : the digestive system, the circulatory system, 
the nervous system, and the secreting system. It is im- 
portant that the organs of these systems be well de- 
veloped. Those characters that show fattening tendencies 
should be repressed so far as possible, because it is im- 
possible to find extreme development of both milk and beef 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 12 



1 7 8 



JUDGING CATTLE 




SHAPE OF DAIRY COW 



179 




qualities in the same animal. Except in the case of a few 
of the points, such as constitution and capacity for feed, 
that should be well developed in all animals, the form of 
the dairy animal is strongly in contrast 
with that of the beef animal. 

Form of the Dairy Cow. — In general 
form the dairy cow should present wedge 
shapes when viewed from three differ- 
ent positions, the front, the side, and 
the top. Viewed from the front the 
point of the wedge appears at the top 
of the shoulders, and the butt of the 
wedge appears at the points of the 
shoulders. This wedge indicates a cow 
free from fatty tendencies on the back 
and wide through the region of the 
chest. Viewed from the top, one sees 
the point of the wedge at the shoulders 
and the butt at the points of the 
hips. Freedom from fleshiness over 
the shoulders and great capacity in the 
region of the hips and pelvis are here 
shown. From a side view of the cow 
one should note the great depth from 
the top of the hips to the bottom of the 
udder, which distance constitutes the 
butt of the wedge. One should also 
note the gradual decrease in depth as he 
carries his eye forward to the shoulder. 
This means that the barrel of the cow 
is large, giving capacity for feed, and Fig. 71. —wedge shaped 

. . 1 1 • n 1 1 1 shoulder and back of a 

that the udder is well developed. dairy cow. 



Fig. 70. — "Wedge shaped 
back of a dairy cow. 




i8o 



JUDGING CATTLE 




Quality. — Quality is indicated by clean, fine bones, free 
from roughness and coarseness ; fine, soft hair ; and loose, 
mellow skin of medium thickness with an abundance of 
yellow secretion. Coarseness of any kind means plain 
breeding or lack of breeding for any particular purpose. 
Coarse, rough cows are poor mothers, and poor mothers 
make poor dairy cows. The yellow secretion means that the 

secreting glands of 
the body are in good, 
healthy, active con- 
dition. Well-fed and 
cared-for cows show 
more secretion than 
those that are poorly 
kept. The amount 
of secretion varies 
with the breed of the 
animal, and it may also vary with different individuals 
within the breed. The amount of secretion and the color 
of it is said by some to be an index to the quality of the fat 
content of the milk. 

Temperament. — The term temperament includes, in 
our generally accepted meaning of the word, disposition, 
but it means more than disposition. Dairy temperament 
might be defined as the inherited attributes of the dairy 
animal which make it possible for her to change large quan- 
tities of food into milk and milk solids, and to transmit those 
qualities to her offspring. The temperament of the dairy 
animal is spoken of as " nervous." This does not mean 
that the dairy animal should be erratic, according to our 
often accepted meaning of the term " nervous." The term 
is used here to mean just what the derivation of the word 



Fig. 72. — Wedge shaped side of a dairy cow. 



DAIRY TYPE 181 

explains, viz., full of nerves, or having nervous force, or a 
strong nervous system. The points which indicate dairy 
temperament are a refined head and neck and a strong 
prominent backbone, providing plenty of room for good 
nerve development. One might properly include all the 
points that constitute dairy type as points that indicate 
dairy temperament. 

Head and Neck. — Marked refinement should be por- 
trayed in every feature of the head and neck. The face 
should be long, indicating that the body is long. The 
expression should be quiet and the eye clear. A large 
muzzle, indicating feeding capacity, and large nostrils, 
indicating lung capacity, are desirable. The eyes should 
be large and clear, indicating vigor and health. Breadth 
of forehead indicates brain and nerve capacity ; and ears 
of fine quality with an abundance of secretion indicate 
quality. Refinement of neck is an indication of inherited 
maternal instinct. 

Forequarters. — The shoulders should be wide at the 
points to give plenty of chest room, and thin at the top, 
indicating refinement and freedom from fleshiness. Too 
great width should be avoided. The breast should be full 
and capacious, and the legs should be short, fine, and free 
from any indication of coarseness. 

Body. — An examination of the body of the animal should 
show a deep chest of moderate width, which indicates con- 
stitution. Constitutional vigor and endurance are the 
two most essential points of the milk-producing cow. The 
ribs should spring gently from the backbone and extend 
well down, with the spaces between them roomy, making 
the barrel as large as possible to give great capacity. The 
backbone should be prominent, indicating room for a strong 



l82 



JUDGING CATTLE 



spinal cord, the main line of the nervous system from the 
brain to different extremities of the body. The backbone 
should be open-jointed, as would be expected if the ribs were 
well spaced. The loin should also be large and roomy, and 
all these parts should be free from fattening tendencies. 

Hindquarters. — Liberal development of the hindquar- 
ters of the cow is essential. The hip points should be far 

apart and prominent, 
the rump should 
be long, wide and 
level, with the pin 
bones far apart. A 
short drooping rump 
is a serious objec- 
tion in the dairy cow. 
The setting and 
length of the tail 
are important. The 
tail should be set 
high, and it should 
reach at least to the 
hocks. It should be 
thin, and is one of the indications of quality. The thighs 
should be thin and curving on the inside to give plenty 
of room for udder development. 

The escutcheon is that part of the cow's udder and the 
space above it marked by the hair growing upward or out- 
ward instead of downward. It is sometimes called the 
" milk mirror," and was believed at one time to be an 
index to the milking qualities of the animal. The ideal 
escutcheon should be wide and high. There are good 
milkers with ideal escutcheons and good milkers whose 




Fig. 73. — Large capacity to produce milk. 



PARTS OF THE DAIRY COW 183 

escutcheons are far from ideal. There are also poor milk- 
ers that bear good escutcheons, so its importance is ques- 
tioned. It is well to make a careful examination, and 
to become familiar with escutcheons, since considerable 
emphasis is placed upon them by many breed associations. 

The udder is the most important part of the dairy cow, 
and should be given careful examination. It is here that the 
secretion of milk takes place. If an animal has a poorly 
shaped udder, or one that is fleshy, diseased, or defective 
in any one of its quarters, her chances of being a good milk 
cow are poor. The udder should be broad, and the quarters 
symmetrical and evenly placed. A long pendulous udder 
or a fleshy one is very undesirable. One that is carried well 
forward and well held up between the thighs is ideal and 
most desirable. Oftentimes the cow with the large udder 
is not the cow that returns the most milk. The cow with 
the small udder of good quality is better equipped than the 
cow with the large fleshy udder. On the other hand heavy- 
producing cows have large, well-developed udders. Milk is 
secreted by the glands of the udder largely at milking time. 
The udder is not a huge cistern to carry milk that is being 
constantly secreted, as is often supposed, but is the gland 
which secretes the fluid. 

The teats of the cow are very important. Their size and 
placing have much to do with the ease of milking. Teats 
should be evenly placed at the four quarters of the udder, 
and should hang plumb. Teats that are too large are un- 
gainly, and small teats are hard to milk. The milk should 
be easily drawn from the teats. 

The Mammary or Milk Veins are the large blood vessels 
on the cow's belly that extend from the udder forward and 
enter the body cavity near the fore legs. It should be 



1 84 



JUDGING CATTLE 



remembered that these vessels are carrying the blood away 
from the udder and not toward it. They are an index to 
the amount of blood that has been taken to the udder, and 
for this reason they are worthy of careful consideration on 
the part of the judge. All good record cows have had large, 
tortuous, branching milk veins. Oftentimes there are poor 
producing cows that are well equipped with good veins, but 
they are the exception rather than the rule. The milk 

veins enter the body 
cavity through holes 
that are called "milk 
wells.'' These should 
be large, allowing 
room for large veins. 
There is always one 
on each side, but if 
there are two or even 
three on a side it is 
better. 

The hind legs 

should be short, 

straight, and strong, 

as opposed to 

crooked, weak legs. Placed well apart they allow room for 

a wide udder and show capacity in the cow. 

Importance of Dairy Score Cards. — While there are a 
great many things about the dairy cow that do not appear 
on the surface, it is well to remember that the cows of dairy 
type that conform to the dairy score card are better pro- 
ducing cows than those that are opposite in type. Milk 
records are, of course, very important, and a great deal of 
consideration should be given them, but it is likewise 




Fig. 74. — Prominent milk veins. 



SCORE CARD 



185 



SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — A dairy cow should weigh not less than 800 pounds, 
have large capacity for feed, a dairy temperament, well-developed milk organs, fine 
quality and perfect health, and be capable of a large production of milk and butter fat. 



Scale of Points 



INDICATION OF CAPACITY FOR FEED — 
25 POINTS 

Face, broad between the eyes and long ; muzzle clean 
cut ; mouth large ; lips strong ; lower jaws lean 
and sinewy 

Body, wedge shape as viewed from front, side, and 
top; ribs, long, far apart and well sprung; breast 
full and wide ; flanks, deep and full 

Back, straight ; crops, broad and open ; loin broad 
and roomy 

Hips and thurls, wide apart and high 

INDICATION OF DAIRY TEMPERAMENT — 
25 POINTS 

Head, clean cut and fine in contour; eyes, promi- 
nent, full, and bright 

Neck, thin, long, neatly joined to head and shoulders 
and free from throatiness and dewlap 

Brisket, lean and light 

Shoulders, lean, sloping, nicely laid up to body; 
points prominent ; withers sharp 

Back, strong, prominent to tail head and open jointed 

Hips, prominent, sharp and level with back 

Thighs, thin and curving on the inside 

Tail, fine and tapering 

Legs, straight ; shank fine 

INDICATION OF WELL-DEVELOPED MILK 
ORGANS — 25 POINTS 

Rump, long, wide, and level; pelvis roomy 

Thighs, wide apart ; twist, high and open 

Udder, large, pliable, extending well forward and 
high up behind; quarters, full, symmetrical, 
evenly joined and well held up to body 

Teats, plumb, good size, symmetrical and well placed 

INDICATIONS OF STRONG CIRCULATORY 
SYSTEM, HEALTH, VIGOR, AND MILK 
FLOW — 25 POINTS 

Eyes, bright and placid 

Nostrils, large and open 

Chest, roomy 

Skin, pliable ; hair, fine and straight ; secretions 
abundant in ear, on body, and at end of tail 

Veins, prominent on face and udder; mammary 
veins, large, crooked, and branching; milk wells 
large and numerous 

Escutcheon, wide and extending high up 



Perfect 
Score 



15 

4 



Total 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



Corrected 



1 86 JUDGING CATTLE 

necessary to consider the type. It is imperative in dairy 
circles to maintain uniform standards, and there is no 
question but that one gets very close to the relative value 
of cows in the order of their possible production when using 
type as a standard. 

EXERCISES 

i. By the use of the score card system select the best beef 
animal on the home farm. 

2. By using the points on the score card select the best cow 
in the home herd. 

3. Test your judgment by weighing the milk of the three 
best cows. 

4. Further check your judgment by testing the milk of all 
these animals and calculating butter fat production. 

HOME PROJECT 

Keep an accurate record of the milk production of all the 
dairy cows in the home herd for one month and test the milk 
of each in order to determine by actual test the best cows. 






CHAPTER XI 

JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 

Swine are produced for meat alone ; and the ideal animal 
is the one that will produce the maximum percentage of 
good meat. The lard hog is a low-down, thick, compact 
animal that has been developed on fattening foods ; while 
the bacon hog has been developed on foods that tend to 
produce more bone than muscle. The fat hog is a product 
of the corn belt, where corn is the cheapest ration grown and 
the one most commonly fed. The bacon hog is a product of 
regions outside the corn belt. The market favors the corn- 
fed hog because it dresses a higher percentage of carcass, 
averaging from 80 per cent to 85 per cent of the live weight. 
The bacon hog dresses about 10 per cent less than the lard 
hog. 

The average consumer prefers meat from the bacon hog, 
notwithstanding its higher cost, because it contains a larger 
proportion of lean meat. 

JUDGING LARD HOGS 

In form the lard hog is deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical , 
and compact, standing squarely on its legs. The ideal lard 
hog gives one the impression of great weight in the smallest 
possible space, and is the type sought by the butcher. In 
this respect it closely resembles the beef steer and the 
mutton sheep. 

187 



1 88 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 

Quality. — Quality is indicated by clean bones, free from 
coarseness ; fine, smooth hair, free from swirls ; and soft skin, 
indicating fineness of flesh. The head and ears should be 
refined, indicating a low percentage of waste. If the body 
is evenly covered with firm flesh, the judge will know that 
the fat and lean are well mixed in the carcass. Flabbiness, 
which is undesirable, indicates too large a proportion of 
fat meat in the carcass. 

Disposition. — In disposition, the hog should be quiet, 
because the quiet hog will consume large rations, lie down, 
and thus fatten more readily than the animal that takes a 
great deal of exercise. 

Head and Neck. — In the examination of the head and 
neck, one should look for a snout of medium length, not 
too coarse. A long snout indicates a long frame and a rever- 
sion to wild ancestry. The face should be short, with full, 
plump cheeks. The short face indicates a compact body, 
and the full cheeks, fleshing tendencies on the part of the 
animal. Breadth of forehead indicates width of body and 
liberal capacity. The eyes of hogs are small, and in the case 
of the extremely fat hog they are almost entirely concealed, 
but they should be as large as possible and wide apart. The 
ear is a good index to quality, the large coarse ear indicating 
coarse meat. The ear of medium size and fine texture is 
desirable as it indicates a carcass of good quality. If the 
ear hangs too limply, it indicates sluggishness, which is 
undesirable. The jowl, which is the flesh beneath the lower 
jaw, should be neat and well tucked up, and at the same 
time it should be full and wide. The hog's neck should be 
short and thick, blending smoothly into the shoulders and 
connecting nicely with the head. A long, thin neck on a 
lard hog is very undesirable. 



PARTS OF THE HOG 189 

Shoulder. — From the shoulder, some very good meat 
is obtained. This part of the carcass is usually trimmed, 
packed, and cured separately. The so-called " picnic hams," 
which are in great demand, come from the shoulder. This 
should be deep, broad, and well covered with flesh. On 
top, the shoulders should be compact and well knit, leaving 
no depressions, which may occur if they are wide and too 
far apart. If the shoulders on the male hog are too coarse, 
they may develop " shields," which are great thickenings 
of the skin over the shoulders and are very objectionable. 

Breast and Chest. — The breast should be prominent, 
wide, and well let down. If the animal is tucked up or 
deficient in the breast, he will be deficient in the region of 
the chest and will lack constitutional strength. 

The chest of the hog is one of the most important points 
to be considered. " Dropping " back of the shoulders and 
" tucking in " at the heart girth are quite common faults. 
The modern lard hog lives under unnatural conditions which 
tend to produce a poor constitution, so that one cannot be 
too careful in guarding against weakness of the chest. 

Sides. — From the sides of the hog is obtained some of 
the best meat. In bacon hogs this point is most important, 
and in lard hogs the sides are valuable for packing. In 
order to insure the maximum amount of side meat, select 
the animals that have deep, long sides, which are well filled 
out, indicating thickness and weight. Smoothness of sides 
is also desired ; wrinkles indicate poor quality. 

Back. — As is the case with all meat animals, the back 
is very important. The judge should get his first impres- 
sions of the animal from its back, and if the animal is defi- 
cient in this region, it should be given low rank. The back 
should be wide, strong, well arched, and well covered. Fat 



i go JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 

backs are required for packing purposes, and the amount of 
spare ribs also depends upon the size of the animal's back. 

Loin. — The loin is the region from the last rib to the hip 
points, and here the hog should be thick, wide, and strong. 
Some of the finest cuts of pork come from the region of the 
loin, and the market is willing to pay a higher price for the 
strong loined hog than for the one deficient in this region. 

Belly and Flank. — In the lard hog the belly is cheap meat, 
and the less of this the better. In the case of the bacon hog 
the belly goes in with the side, and is thus of greater value. 
In either case, it should be well held up and free from flab- 
biness. 

In the region of the flank, the lard hog should be well let 
down, making the underline level and straight, with no 
depression in front of the hind leg. Fleshiness in this region 
indicates fleshiness throughout the carcass. 

Hip and Rump. — The hips, which should be wide apart, 
conforming with the other parts of the body, should be 
smooth and well covered with flesh. The rump should be 
long, level, and wide. Some breeds have more sloping 
rumps than others. In the case of the hog that has the 
nicely arched back, there is a tendency for a somewhat 
more sloping rump than in the case of the hog that has a 
more level back. If the back of the hog is well arched, one 
should expect to find a long rounding rump, evenly fleshed 
and smooth. 

Hams. — The hams of the lard hog form one of the most 
valuable parts, and in judging swine careful examination 
should be made of this region. The hog with low flanks 
and a long, well-shaped rump will usually have a well-shaped 
ham. In this region there should be depth, fullness, and 
width. While the hams should carry as much flesh as pos- 



BACON HOGS 191 

sible, the judge should guard against flabby hams. The 
value of the hams depends in great measure upon the mix- 
ture of fat and lean meat. Flabby, blubbery hams are un- 
desirable. 

Legs. — The legs of the hog should be short and strong 
without coarseness, and should be well placed under the 
body. Breeds that are good grazers stand up on their legs 
better than those of the extreme lard type, because they 
exercise more and become better developed in those parts. 
Weak pasterns should be guarded against, and the animal 
with a tendency to drop down on its dewclaws should be 
rejected. In the case of fat animals, however, this may be 
disregarded. 

JUDGING BACON HOGS 

In recent years there has developed a great demand for 
bacon, to be sold in cured and smoked form. The consum- 
ers of bacon demand firm meat without too much fat. To 
produce this meat, the bacon hog has been evolved. The 
best bacon comes from the sides of the hog, so in judging 
bacon hogs, one should pay particular attention to the 
animal with long, deep, firm sides, and firm flesh throughout 
the carcass. These are the points worthy of particular 
study in the bacon hog. 

Condition and Quality. — The thin or lean hog is not the 
best for bacon purposes. The covering of flesh is very 
important, and this should be firmer than that of the lard 
hog, but not so thick. The animal should be smooth 
throughout and entirely free from wrinkles. The bones 
should be fine and the skin and hair soft and pliable. 

Form. — In form, the bacon hog should be longer and 
deeper than the lard hog, without the extreme thickness and 



192 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 

width. The animal must be uniform in width throughout, 
and all tendency toward thickness in some parts should be 
avoided. The snout of the bacon hog is longer and more 
slender than that of the lard hog, and the animal stands up 
higher on its legs. 

The shoulders should be smooth and free from coarseness, 
compact on top, and well knit together. 

The hindquarters of the bacon hog should be well rilled 
and carried down well toward the hocks. Instead of the 
extremely thick and fat ham found on the fat hog we here 
find a compact, neat, and firm quarter. The term " gam- 
mon " is applied to the hams of the bacon hog. 

Bacon hogs are more active than lard hogs. They are 
more prolific, and produce large litters of very active and 
healthy pigs. 

JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 

To be a judge of breeding animals one should be familiar 
with the standards of excellence for the various breeds, 
and should also be experienced in handling them so as to 
become familiar with their important points. 

In judging, allowance should be made for sex differ- 
ences. Males are uniformly heavy in the forequarters, so 
that the evenness of lines called for on the score card will 
not be found in the case of the male. Females are lighter 
in the forequarters than males, but are proportionately 
wider in the hindquarters. Males are coarser about the 
head and neck than females. In disposition, the male is 
aggressive, active, and sometimes more or less vicious, while 
the female is generally quiet and docile. The male has 
coarser bone, skin, and hair, and is about 20 per cent heavier 
at maturity. 



SCORE CARD 



193 



SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING SWINE 



Scale of Points 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — 25 POINTS 

Weight, estimate actual lbs. . . . 

Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, com- 
pact, standing squarely on legs 

Quality, bone clean; hair silky; skin soft; head 
and ears refined, evenly covered with firm 
flesh 

Disposition, quiet, docile 



HEAD AND NECK — 10 POINTS 

Snout, medium length, not coarse 

Face, short, cheeks full 

Forehead, broad 

Eyes, large, mild, full, bright, wide apart 

Ears, medium size, fine, soft 

Jowl, strong, neat, broad 

Neck, thick, medium length 



FOREQUARTERS — 13 POINTS 

Shoulder, symmetrical, broad, deep, full, com- 
pact on top 

Breast, wide, prominent, well let down 

Legs, straight, short, feet and pasterns strong . . 

BODY —32 POINTS 

Chest, deep, broad ; girth large 

Sides, deep, lengthy and full 

Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 

Loin, thick, wide and strong 

Belly, straight, even, and firmly fleshed 

Flank, low and well fleshed, girth large 



HINDQUARTERS — 20 POINTS 

Hips, wide apart, smooth 

Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, smooth 

Hams, firm, heavily fleshed, deep and wide. . . . 
Legs, straight, short ; feet, and pasterns strong 



Total 



Possible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



Corrected 



T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 1 3 



194 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 

JUDGING SHEEP 

Next to horses, sheep are the most difficult class of live 
stock to judge. The sheep is covered by a coat of wool 
which, in the show ring, is generally long and dense enough 
to hide the form of the animal's body. The skillful shepherd 
by the clever use of the shears can trim the wool so that 
the appearance of the animal is very deceptive. In judging 
sheep, the judge must rely upon his hands to discover the 
exact form of the animal. He who would become skilled 
in the art of judging sheep must train his hands to determine 
accurately the form and covering of flesh on the animal's 
body beneath the covering of wool. To avoid the possibility 
of leaving any part of the animal unexamined, the judge 
should adhere to a regular routine of handling and follow 
it closely in the examination of the sheep. 

The Form of the Mutton Sheep. — The form of the sheep 
sought for mutton purposes should be, in general, the same 
as that looked for in the beef animal and the lard hog. 
Good development in the parts of the animal upon which 
the best meat is obtained is required in the good mutton 
sheep. Were the demands of the butcher entirely satis- 
fied, the sheep would have a peculiar form indeed, because 
butchers call for an animal that is heavily developed in the 
region of the leg of mutton and along the back, and slightly 
developed in the region of the head, neck, and legs. This 
form of animal, however, is an impossibility, and the man 
selecting sheep knows that in actual practice the butcher's 
ideal can only be approximated. The judge's ideal is an 
animal that is well developed in all the essential parts. 

Form. — The mutton sheep should be low, blocky, and 
squarely set upon short legs, with the body as long as possible 



MUTTON SHEEP 195 

without sacrificing the compactness essential in the meat 
animal. Symmetry, or the correct proportioning of parts, 
is necessary in the good sheep. An even covering of firm 
flesh is important. Other things being equal, the thicker 
the covering the sheep carries, the higher will be the killing 
percentage, and the firmer the covering the better will be 
the quality of the mutton. Softness of flesh indicates that 
the animal's carcass does not possess the correct " marbling" 
or distribution of fat and lean, and in this case one may sus- 
pect that the carcass carries surplus fat. 

Quality. — The quality of the animal is indicated by the 
silkiness of the hair found on the nose, by the refinement and 
clear definition of the tendons at the back of the foreleg, 
and by the fineness and cleanness of the bone. Refinement 
in these parts indicates that this same fineness exists in 
the muscles and meat of the sheep. 

Disposition. — In temperament the animal should be 
quiet. The nervous, restless animal lacks fattening tend- 
encies and has a poorer appetite than the animal of the op- 
posite disposition. 

Head and Neck. — The face of the sheep should be short 
ind the forehead wide. This is of so much importance 
that the good judge can often select the best feeding sheep 
by the appearance of the head alone. A strong, wide 
muzzle indicates breathing capacity and constitution, while 
thin lips indicate quality. Full clear eyes indicate health 
and vitality. The neck should be short and thick, blending 
well with wide, compact, well-covered shoulders, making the 
shoulder vein full and smooth. 

Chest. — The chest should be deep and wide, giving a 
large girth, which indicates sufficient room for the vital 
organs and for feeding capacity as well. The animal should 



iq6 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 

be low at the brisket, and this part of the sheep should be 
full and prominent. 

Legs. — The legs should be short, to reduce the waste 
in this part of the body to the minimum. They should 
also be straight, strong, and placed wide apart. 

Body. — The back and loin of the sheep are very impor- 
tant. It is from this region that the judge should get his 
impressions of the worth of the sheep. A short, strong, 
straight, wide back, well covered with flesh, indicates at 
once a good animal. Width and thickness of loin are very 
essential, as in this region some very choice cuts should be 
found. Well-arched ribs with good depth indicate that the 
sheep has room not only for the consumption of feed but 
also for the deposition of fat upon the body. A full, well- 
let-down flank indicates that the sheep is carrying flesh and 
makes a straight underline. 

Leg of Mutton. — Since the leg of mutton is the most 
valuable portion of the carcass, development in the region 
of the twist and thigh is especially sought for. 

Wool. — Although the butcher is not especially inter- 
ested in the wool, no sheep is completely judged for breeding 
purposes until a careful examination of the wool has been 
made. One should also bear in mind the general rule, that 
the finer and more compact the wool, on a mutton sheep, 
the better will be the quality of its meat. In judging the 
fine-wool breeds which are raised primarily for their wool 
this examination is of the first importance. 

The thickest and the best quality of wool grows in the 
region of the shoulder, while the poorest grade grows along 
the belly. When examining the fleece, part it with the 
palms of the hands, not with the finger tips, in the region 
of the shoulder near the heart girth. Do not break the 



EXAMINING THE FLEECE 



197 



wool clusters so as to leave the fleece open, but examine it 
where the fleece seems to part naturally. The fleece should 
also be examined in the region of the thigh, because a very 
poor quality of wool grows here and is much more easily 
examined than on the belly. It is a good plan to examine 
the wool on the belly because an animal in poor condition 
is often poorly covered in 'this region. 




Fig. 75. — Examining wool on a sheep. 

The judge should look for both quantity and quality of 
wool, although it is generally true that the finer the 
quality of the wool the shorter will be the fiber, and the 
longer the fiber the coarser will be the wool. The factors 
that determine the quantity of wool are density, length 
of fiber, and evenness of the fleece over the body of the 
animal. 

By density of fleece is meant compactness of its fibers. 
To one seeking market wool this means a much heavier fleece, 
and to the breeder it indicates better constitution and pro- 
tection against inclement weather. The sheep with the 
compact coat can shed rains better than the animal with an 
open fleece. A heavy, dense coat of wool also prevents the 



198 JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 

radiation of heat from the surface of the body and thus 
enables the sheep better to withstand the cold. 

The length of the fiber not only indicates the amount of 
wool but also determines the use to which it will be put 
by the manufacturers. In the making of worsted goods, a 
long fiber is sought, while for broadcloth the manufacturer 
seeks a shorter staple. 

The quality of wool is indicated by its soundness, purity, 
crimp, luster, brightness, and the amount of yolk to be 
found in it. Softness may be determined by pressing the 
flat of the hand upon the surface of the fleece. Harshness 
of fleece is generally due to a lack of yolk or oil in the wool. 
Poor feeding or exposure to the weather may cause a harsh 
fleece. Soils also have a marked influence upon the softness 
of fleece. The effect of good care cannot be overestimated 
in its influence upon the fleece as well as upon the carcass 
of the sheep. 

The soundness of the fleece depends upon the uniform 
strength of the fibers. Fibers with weak spots in them are 
not worth so much to the manufacturer as are uniformly 
strong fibers. Soundness may be determined by taking a 
small bundle of fibers from the fleece and twisting it into 
yarn. If the fleece is sound the yarn cannot be broken. 
Unsound fibers will break at the weak spot. Unsoundness 
of fleece also indicates the care which the animal received. 
A period of poor feeding or of poor health will produce a 
weak place in the wool. 

Crimp refers to the little waves or kinks that are found 
in wool. These kinks are caused by the flatness of the fibers. 
Crimp distinguishes a wool fiber from a fiber of hair, which 
has no crimp. In fine fleeces of good quality these kinks 
are numerous and uniform in size. In coarse fleeces the 



EXAMINING THE FLEECE 199 

crimp is open. The waves or kinks should be of uniform 
size throughout the entire length of the fiber. 

The condition of wool depends upon luster, brightness, 
purity, and character of the yolk, and is influenced by the 
care and management of the flock as well as by the breeding. 

In examining for purity look for dead hairs, commonly 
called kemp. These can easily be detected, because they 
are straight with no crimp. They are usually found upon 
poorly kept sheep, and are partly due to exposure. The 
manufacturer does not want kemp, because it will not take 
the dye well. 

The terms luster and brightness are often confused. 
Luster refers to the peculiar sheen found upon all wool and 
is as common upon the darker-colored wools as upon the 
lighter ones. Lustrous wool takes the dye somewhat better 
than wool that possesses little luster. Brightness, on the 
other hand, refers entirely to the color of the wool. White, 
clean fleeces are spoken of as bright, while dark-colored, 
dirty fleeces are said to be dark. Cleanliness, then, improves 
the brightness of the wool. Dirty fleeces are found in 
places where sand storms fill the fleeces with wind-blown 
sand. Sheep that are forced to live around straw stacks, 
or are kept in muddy lots with steers or other cattle, where 
they are forced to lie down in filthy places, get dirty and 
their fleeces lack brightness. 

The yolk is the oil in the fleece. It is of no particular im- 
portance to the manufacturers of woolen goods, since it 
is all washed out before the wool is used, but to the breeder 
presence of yolk indicates that the animal is in good physi- 
cal condition. Feeding has a great influence upon the 
amount of yolk that the sheep secretes ; the better the feed- 
ing the greater is the quantity of yolk. 



200 



JUDGING SWINE AND SHEEP 



SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING MUTTON SHEEP 



Scale or Points 



Age Teeth 

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 24 POINTS 
Weight estimated actual pounds 

according to age 

Form, low, long, symmetrical, compact, and 

evenly covered with firm flesh 

Quality, clean bone; silky hair 

Temperament 

HEAD AND NECK— 9 POINTS 

Muzzle, fair size; nostrils large; lips this; 

mouth large 

Eyes, full ; bright 

Face, short, bold expression 

Forehead, broad 

Ears, fine, erect 

Neck, thick, short ; throat clean 

FORE QUARTERS — 13 POINTS 

Shoulder Vein, full 

Shoulders, covered, compact 

Chest, deep, wide, large girth 

Brisket, full, prominent ; breast wide 

Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; fore- 
arm full, shank smooth 

BODY — 13 POINTS 

Back, straight, wide 

Loin, broad, thick 

Ribs, deep, arched 

Flank, low, thick, making underline straight . . 
HINDQUARTERS — 17 POINTS 

Hips, smooth, far apart 

Rump, long, level, wide 

Thighs, full, well fleshed 

Twist, plump, deep 

Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank smooth . . . . 

CONSTITUTION — 10 POINTS 

Girth, large. 

Skin, pink color 

Fleece, dense and even over body, yolk abun- 
dant 

WOOL — 14 POINTS 

Quantity, long, dense, even 

Quality, fine, soft, pure, even 

Condition, bright, strong, clean 

Total 



Possible 
Score 



10 
6 
2 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



Corrected 



EXERCISES 201 

EXERCISES 

i. Indicate the various steps in their proper order that you 
would take in selecting the best animal from a herd of swine. 

2. What are the principal defects to be noted by the show 
ring judge when judging swine ? 

3. Show how you would pick out from a mixed flock the best 
mutton sheep. 

4. What would be your method of selecting breeding ewes 
for wool production? 

5. What are some of the tricks used in the show ring for 
deceiving the judge of sheep? 

HOME PROJECT 

From the home herd or flock select the two best animals and 
fit them for show. Discard the poorer of the two just before 
entry. 



CHAPTER XII 

JUDGING HORSES 

Judging horses is the most difficult and at the same time 
the most fascinating task of the live stock judge. The 
judge should be familiar with the variations in type due to 
the many different uses to which horses are put ; the various 
breed types ; the blemishes and unsoundnesses ; and the 
" tricks of the trade " in showing horses. All these com- 
bine to make horse judging the highest art in the judging 
of live stock. 

BLEMISHES AND UNSOUNDNESS 

An unsoundness is a defect of a horse, a predisposition 
towards which is inherited from its ancestors. Blemishes 
are defects caused by injury, such as bruises and wire cuts. 
While blemishes are disfiguring, undesirable, and hurt the 
sale of a horse, they do not disqualify the breeding animal. 

Horses should be carefully examined for unsoundness, 
because in the judging of all classes no unsound horse should 
be awarded a place. If in the detailed examination in the 
show ring, any of these defects are discovered, the defective 
horse should be retired from the competition. The com- 
mon unsoundnesses which every one who judges horses 
should very readily recognize are : poll evil, fistula of the 
withers heaves, bad wind or roaring, ringbone, sidebone, 

202 



PARTS OF A HORSE 



203 



thoroughpin, bone and bog spavins, curb, stringhalt, and 
defects of the eyes or other organs. 

Poll Evil. — This is a suppurating sore located on the top 
of the head just back of the line drawn between the ears. 
1 




Fig 


. 76. — Parts of a horse 


1. Poll 


12. Knee 


2. Forehead 


13. Fetlock 


3. Face 


14. Pastern 


4. Muzzle 


15. Neck 


5. Throatlatch 


16. Crest 


6. Windpipe 


17. Withers 


7. Jugular groove 


18. Back 


8. Point of shoulder 


19. Shoulder 


9. Chest 


20. Elbow 


10. Arm, from shoulder point 


21. Loins 


11. Forearm 


22. Coupling 



23- Hip 

24. Croup 

25. Flank 

26. Stifle 

27. Hip joint 

28. Thigh 

29. Quarter 

30. Point of hock 

31. Hock joint 

32. Gaskin or lower thigh 
33- Coronet 



It discharges pus and is very painful to the animal. The 
difficulty in curing the trouble lies in the fact that the sore 
cannot be well drained because no outlet can be made from 



204 JUDGING HORSES 

below. Horses that have been afflicted with this trouble 
show scars, and object to being handled about their heads. 
Fistula of the Withers. — This trouble, of the same gen- 
eral nature as poll evil, is located on top of the withers or at 
the top of the shoulders. Horses that have been affected 
with fistula generally show scars. The neck may show a 
depression and is often sensitive to the touch. 

Heaves. — ■ This disease affects the lungs of the horse and 
is generally noticeable after eating too greedily of bulky hay 
or dusty feeds, or after a heavy pull or violent exercise. 
The affected horse breathes in a peculiar fashion, most notice- 
able in the region of the flank, the air being expelled from 
the lungs in two short jerks. Horses with this disease are 
generally shorter of breath than are sound horses, and cough 
after exertion. 

Roaring. — Roaring is a disease which affects the larynx 

or windpipe. When the horse is exercised at a rapid rate or 

worked under a heavy pull, loud breathing or roaring results. 

Ringbone. — Ringbone affects the pastern bone of the 

horse, and appears as an enlargement encircling this bone. 

Sidebones. — Sidebones affect the 
feet of the horse. The lateral car- 
tilages beneath the skin at the hoof 
head above the heel become ossified, 
or turn to bone. Horses with nar- 
row feet, or low or too prominent at 
the heels, are most susceptible to 

Fig. 77. — A prominent side- n . .. -r* t •.. • • 1 

bone. The cross marks the thlS trouble. TredlSpOSltlOn to Side- 
location of this defect. bones . s inherited? and an i ma i s wit h 

them should not be used for breeding purposes. 

Thoroughpin. — This is found just above the hock of the 
horse. It appears as a swelling or filling between the lower 




UNSOUNDNESS 



205 




Fig. 78. — Unsound hock joint, 
showing bog spavin. 



thigh bone and the large tendon back of it. By pressing 
with the fingers either on the outside or the inside of the 
enlargement, the swelling may be 
made to oscillate back and forth. 

Spavin. — Spavins are of two kinds, 
bone spavin and bog spavin. The 
bone spavin affects the bones of the 
hock, and generally appears as an 
enlargement at the lower inner as- 
pect of the hock joint. When form- 
ing, they are small and painful, and 
are called "jacks" by some horsemen. 
The bog spavin appears as a swell- 
ing of the entire hock joint. The 
swelling generally appears on the inside of the hock, al- 
though the entire joint may be affected. 

Curb. — Curb shows as a swelling 
at the back of the hind leg just below 
the hock. It is usually associated 
with " sickle " or crooked hocks. 
Sometimes curb appears upon well- 
formed legs, and may be due to a 
hard pull or a sudden strain. 

Stringhalt. — This is a disease of 
the nerves, that usually appears in 
only one of the hind legs. In the 
case of affected animals, the feet are 
lifted quickly from the ground, raised 
abnormally high, and set down with 
the same vigor. If the horse is 
" warmed up " it is often not noticeable, but if the animal 
is allowed to stand quietly for some time and then sud- 




Fig. 79. — Unsound hock 
joint, showing large curb. 



206 JUDGING HORSES 

denly started forward or backward, the trouble can be 
detected. 

Defective Eyes or Other Organs. — The horse should be 
examined for blindness, and to see that the eyes are of the 
same color. In examining for defective sight, care should 
be taken not to get the hands too close to the eye, as breezes 
from the waving of the hands, or the touching of long hairs 
that are found about the eyes may cause the horse to close 
its eyes, even though the animal may have good sight. 
A sound eye appears translucent. A blind eye is opaque. 
One should notice if the horse hears well. If the ears 
appear too alert or move too much, defective ears should be 
suspected. 

The horse's mouth should be examined for poor teeth. 
The upper row of incisors should strike the lower row. 
The horse may be parrot-mouthed, in which case the upper 
jaw protrudes beyond the lower one ; or it maybe undershot, 
in which case the lower jaw extends beyond the upper. 

JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 

The draft horse is used to draw heavy loads at a slow 
rate of speed, and is so built that the greatest strength 
may be obtained without regard to speed. The bones and 
muscles of the horse are short and strong. The whole 
build of the animal is such that the load is brought as nearly 
as possible to the power. 

Age. — The age of the horse is usually indicated by its 
teeth. The horse's teeth are classed as incisors or 
cutting teeth, canine or tearing teeth, and cheek teeth 
which are made up of premolars and molars. There are 
12 incisors, 6 on both the upper and the lower jaw; 
12 to 14 premolars, either 3 or 4 each side in the upper and 



EXAMINING THE TEETH 207 

3 on each side in the lower jaw ; and 12 molars, 3 on each 
side in both upper and lower jaws, making a total of 40 or 
42 permanent, teeth in the mouth of the mature horse. 
The colt does not have a " full mouth." 

Changes take place quite uniformly in the number of 
temporary and permanent teeth found in the mouth of the 
young horse, and in the appearance of the permanent teeth 
as the horse advances in age. To determine the age of the 
animal, it is necessary to examine and note the appearance 
of the incisor teeth only. Permanent teeth are much larger 
than the colt's temporary ones. 

At about the age of i\ years, the central pair of temporary 
incisors in both upper and lower jaws is replaced by per- 
manent teeth, so that if there is present in the mouth 
of the horse one pair of permanent incisors the animal 
is between 2J and 3^ years of age. At about the age 
of 3i years, one incisor on each side of the central 
pair in both the upper and the lower jaw is replaced by 
new permanent teeth, so that the presence of two pairs 
of permanent incisors and one pair of temporary in- 
cisors indicates that the horse is from 3-^- to 4% years old. 
At about the age of \\ or 5 years, the remaining temporary 
incisors are replaced by permanent teeth, so that at this 
age the horse has a full mouth of permanent incisors and is 
spoken of as having a " full mouth." Up to five years of 
age there is not much difficulty in determining the age of 
the horse, because the temporary incisors, which are white 
and smooth with a restriction about the neck of the tooth 
near the gums, are not hard to distinguish from the perma- 
nent incisors, which are much longer, broader, harder, and 
stronger. 

The teeth of horses are constructed differently from those 



208 JUDGING HORSES 

of any other animal in that they have a deep cavity in the 
center of the wearing surface. This cavity, which is partly 
filled with a sort of cement, becomes darkened with deposits 
of food, and is usually called the " cup " or " mark " of the 
tooth. As the horse advances in age, the tooth wears down 
about the cup, and in time it disappears from the tooth. 
It takes about three years for the cups to disappear from 
the teeth of the lower jaw, and about six years for them to 
disappear from the upper jaw, because in the upper teeth the 
cups are deeper. From the age of five years the principal 
changes in the appearance of the teeth are as follows. 
At about the age of six years the cups or marks have dis- 
appeared from the lower central incisors, at the age of seven 
years the cups disappear from the lower incisors next the 
central pair, and at the age of eight years the cups have 
disappeared from all the lower incisors. At about the age 
of nine years the cups disappear from the upper central 
incisors ; they disappear from the incisors next to the central 
upper pair at the age of ten years, and at the age of eleven 
years no cups are to be found on the incisor teeth of the 
horse. As the horse advances in age the teeth seem to 
project forward as viewed from the side, and the wearing 
surface of the teeth becomes triangular in form with the base 
of the triangle next to the lips of the animal. 

In judging, it is well to be able to tell the age of horses 
by the teeth up to the age of five years, so that a horse will 
not be allowed to enter a wrong class according to age. 
The teeth of horses are often " bishoped " or chipped out, 
and made to appear like those of young horses. 

Height. — The height of the horse is reckoned in " hands." 
A " hand " is four inches. The height is measured by a 
vertical line let fall from the top of the withers to the ground 



HEIGHT AND WEIGHT 209 

just back of the heel. The horse should be led on to a hard 
floor and so stood that all four feet are under the body in 
normal position when the measurement is made. A draft 
horse should be at least 16 hands high. The desirable 
height is i6i to 17 hands. Horses above that height are 
somewhat difficult to care for, and are hard to match. 

Weight. — The score card allows four points for the 
weight of the draft horse. If all the horses competing are 
above 1500 pounds in weight this allowance is sufficient, 
but weight is the factor that determines whether or not a 
horse belongs in the draft class. Without weight, the ani- 
mal lacks the power to start heavy loads with ease. The 
point is well illustrated in the case of the railway locomo- 
tive, which is dependent to a great extent upon its weight, 
giving it power to grip the rails. 

The market price of the draft horse depends largely 
upon its weight. Statistics show that a price of $25.00 is 
received for every hundred pounds of weight above 1400 
pounds. Men often take advantage of the difference in 
price between light and heavy horses, and buy thin horses 
possessing good quality and large frame on the market, 
feed them until they have increased in weight from 100 to 
300 pounds, return them to the market, and make a good 
profit on the increased price offered for the increase in 
weight and the improved appearance and condition of the 
horses. There is always a strong demand for heavy horses, 
but there is a limited demand for extremely heavy horses, 
because they are hard to match and must either be worked 
alone or as middle horses in three-horse teams. 

Form. — The form of the draft horse should be such that 
the greatest weight is compacted into the least space, and 
the center of gravity thus brought close to the ground. 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 14 



210 JUDGING HORSES 

The working parts of the body should be so arranged that 
the levers will give the animal the greatest power to pull. 
Great breadth and massiveness in all parts of the horse 
indicate strength and give the animal required weight. 
Symmetry, or correct proportion of the parts of the body 
to one another, lends beauty of appearance and increases 
efficiency as well. The animal should be blocky, short 
legged, and close to the ground. 

Quality. — Quality is a term used to designate degree of 
refinement in physical make-up. Over-refinement should 
not be sought for in the draft horse. Weight and refine- 
ment are two opposite characters, and extreme refinement 
is obtained only at the sacrifice of weight, which is the first 
and most important essential. The bones of the animal, 
while large and strong, should be free from roughness. The 
tendons, wherever they may be seen on the body of the 
horse, should be large, strong, and clearly defined. The 
skin should feel soft and pliable beneath the touch of the 
hand, and the hair should be fine and silky. This is espe- 
cially true of the " feather," which is the hair that grows 
from the back of the cannon bone from the knee to the fet- 
lock joint in the hairy-legged breeds. 

Action. — Although strength is the primary requisite 
and great speed is not essential, good action is an important 
qualification of the draft horse. Judgment should not be 
passed until the animal has been made to move. Free, 
strong movement indicates vigor and good condition, while 
listless action indicates sluggishness. Action also serves 
to bring out defects in the structure and working parts of 
the body which might otherwise be hidden. 

In examining for action, the horse should be led straight 
away from the judge and viewed from the rear. The feet 



ACTION 211 

should be carried forward in a straight line. Paddling, 
or throwing the toes outward as they are carried forward, 
and winging, the opposite defect, are both equally bad. 
The hocks should also be carried straight forward. If the 
points of the hocks turn outward, carrying the toes of the 
hind feet too close together, the horse cannot get so much 
strength for pulling and is classed as defective in the hocks. 
In action, the feet should be lifted from the ground with a 
snap, and the joints near the feet should be so flexed that 
the horse will show the sole of each foot when viewed from 
the rear. 

The horse should also be led straight back toward the 
judge, so that a front view of action may be obtained. 
From this view, the judge can get an impression of the 
carriage of the horse's head, and obtain a better view of 
the movement of the feet. The style and life of the horse 
can also be observed from the front. The judge should 
also obtain a side view of the horse in action. The stride 
should be long and springy. " Interfering," or " forging," 
which is the striking of one foot with another, should be 
watched for while the horse is in action. 

The walk of the draft horse is somewhat more important 
than the trot. The walk should be free, elastic, springy, 
snappy, regular, and straight away. The trot should be 
free and bold, springy without lifting the body too high 
from the ground, and should be straight away in the line of 
draft. The action of a horse should never be passed upon 
until both walk and trot are observed. 

Temperament. — The draft horse should be energetic, 
but the fiery disposition of the fast horse is not expected. 
In temperament, the animal should be quiet, or phlegmatic, 
as opposed to the more nervous disposition of the horse 



212 JUDGING HORSES 

developed for speed alone. A peaceable, quiet disposition 
is desired, and the animal that will conserve its strength 
for work, even in the midst of most exciting surroundings, 
is the horse best suited for draft purposes. 

Head. — The head of the draft horse should be large 
enough to be in proportion with the rest of the body. The 
proper size can only be learned by experience. It should 
be well carried to give style and finish to the animal's ap- 
pearance. A straight profile is generally found on the horse 
of greatest intelligence ; the rounding profile, which gives 
the Roman nose to the animal, may indicate stubbornness, 
and the incurving profile is usually found on the horse that 
is easily controlled, but of small capacity for training. 
Profiles of horses vary with the breed. 

Forehead. — The forehead covers that part of the head 
extending from a line drawn between the eyes back or up 
to a line drawn between the ears. It should be broad and 
full, indicating intelligence. 

Eyes. — The eyes should be bright, full, clear, and of the 
same color. Clearness and brightness of the eyes indicate 
intelligence and a generally healthy condition. The eye is 
a good index to the disposition of the horse. Small eyes 
usually indicate a mean disposition ; large mild eyes, a 
good one. The judge should examine carefully for cases 
of blindness, as these are disqualifications. 

Ears. — The ears should be of proportionate size, which 
is best told by experience. The way a horse carries his 
ears is a good index to the disposition of the animal. 
Alertness of the ears shows vigor and life. While move- 
ment of the ears generally indicates spirit, it may also 
indicate defective eyesight, a condition which should be 
carefully inspected. 



HEAD AND SHOULDERS 213 

Muzzle. — The nostrils, lips, and external mouth parts 
are included in the muzzle. The nostrils should be large, 
giving room for free and easy breathing; but if they are 
distended too much it may be an indication that the ani- 
mal at one time suffered from overheating. The lips should 
be fine and firmly held together, indicating a tense muscu- 
lar system. Flabby and drooping lips are usually found on 
sluggish horses. 

Lower Jaw. — The lower jaw should be wide to conform 
with the general width desired throughout the body. The 
spaces between the two parts of the lower jawbone should 
be wide and free from fleshiness or lumps of any sort. 

Neck. — The neck of the draft horse should be well 
muscled, neatly arched, and blend gracefully into the 
shoulder. A " ewe neck," or one that curves downward, 
is very undesirable, detracting greatly from the appearance. 
The throatlatch should be clean and free from swellings. 
The windpipe should be large, for free breathing. 

Shoulders. — The shoulders should slope gently and be 
smooth, blending well into the neck in front and the body 
at the rear. Very steep shoulders are undesirable, because 
in pulling too much of the weight will be borne near the 
lower point of the shoulder. If they are too sloping, how- 
ever, the reverse condition obtains. 

Arm. — The arm of the horse, extending from the 
shoulder joint to the elbow joint, should be strong and well 
muscled. 

Forearm. — The forearm, which extends from the elbow 
to the knee, should be long and muscular, indicating 
great strength. 

Knees. — The knees should be free from puffmess, should 
be flat and large, allowing plenty of room for articulation 



214 



JUDGING HORSES 



of the joint and attachment of muscles. Knees that are 
slightly flexed and held forward when the horse is standing 
are called " buck knees." 

Cannons. — The cannon bones are really round, but 
when properly supported by sufficient tendons, appear flat. 

They extend from the knee to the 
fetlock joint and should be short 
and free from enlargements. Splints, 
which are small, bony growths, some- 
times appear on the inside of the 
front cannon bones. While they sel- 
dom cause lameness, they are unde- 
sirable, especially upon light, fancy 
driving horses. Clean, strong ten- 
dons are desired, and any tendency 
toward puffiness is objectionable. If 
the cannon bones are too small the 
knees have the appearance of being 
set back too far. This defect is called " calf kneed." 

Fetlocks. — The fetlock joint is located between the 
cannon and the pastern bones. These joints should be 
large, strong, and free from puffiness. 

Pasterns. — Although only three points are given to 
pasterns on the score card, the setting and length of the 
pastern bones are very important in the conformation of the 
horse. These bones should be moderately long and slope 
at an angle of about 45 . If the pasterns are short and 
steep, the horse will have a stiff, stilty action. The horse's 
foot receives a heavy blow when his weight is brought down 
upon it during action. If the pastern is sloping, a great deal 
of the force of the blow is broken or absorbed. This is not 
so in the case of the horse with the short steep pastern, in 




Fig. 80. — Unsound knees. 



PASTERNS 



215 



which the force of the blow is trans- 
mitted undiminished through the joints 
to the animal's body. The horse with 
the moderately long and sloping pas- 
tern will have better action, and will 
also be better able to endure the shocks 
of hard city streets. Too long and slop- 
ing pasterns are likewise objectionable 
because they are likely to be weak. 

Feet. — It has been said that in 
examining a horse, one should begin 
at the ground and work upward, and 
then work down to ground again, 
meaning that the part of the horse that supports it at the 
ground is the most important part. In judging horses, strict 




Fig. 81. — A good type of 
draft-horse pasterns. 






Fig. 82. 



Side views of forelegs. The drawing at the left shows correct conforma- 
tion. The others show common defects. 




Fig. 83. — Front views of forelegs. The drawing at the left shows correct conforma- 
tion. The others show common defects. 



216 JUDGING HORSES 

attention should be paid to the feet. The larger the foot, 
the more of the shock will it be able to absorb, and the less 
will there be transmitted to the upper parts of the body. 
The foot should be large at the hoof head, so as to give 
greater freedom for articulation in the movement of the 
foot, and thus lessen the susceptibility of the horse to foot 
troubles. 

The feet should be of the same size, and point straight 
forward. In front they should slope gently from the top to 
the ground. A very flat foot is too low at the heel. On 
the other hand, if the foot is very steep, the pastern of the 
horse is usually steep, which has already been noted as an 
objectionable feature. 

The quality of the foot is very important. The horn, of 
which the outside is composed, should be dense and waxy, 
not dry and flaky. The condition of the foot can be greatly 
influenced by the treatment. If kept on hard floors, and 
worked on paved streets, the feet will appear flaky, and will 
be more likely to crack than if the animal is kept on a dirt 
floor and worked a part or all of the time on soft earth. 
A poor horseshoe may also work great injury to a horse's 
feet. 

Chest. — The chest is that part of the body that contains 
the heart and lungs. Its capacity is measured by the 
length of the girth, the distance around the body of the 
horse, back of the shoulders. At this point, the animal 
should be deep and wide, indicating that there is sufficient 
room for large, vigorous organs. The breastbone should 
be low, providing ample chest space and giving the low- 
down, blocky appearance so essential in a valuable draft 
horse. 

Ribs. — The form of the body depends to a large degree 






CHEST AND BACK 217 

upon the shape of the ribs. The ribs should be well 
arched, springing out from the backbone. This will make 
a broad back, furnishing room for the attachment of strong 
muscles. They should be well carried down, forming a 
roomy cavity for the digestive organs, and giving to the 
animal a cylindrical appearance. The distance from the 
last rib to the hips should be short, forming what is called 
a " short couple." The round-ribbed, short-coupled an- 
imal is stronger, healthier, and more easily kept in good 
condition thereby. 

Back. — The back, extending from the shoulders to the 
hips, should be short, wide, and strong. Low and long 
backs are weak ones. The male should have a shorter back 
and shorter coupling than the female, in which more length 
is allowable. 

Loins. — The loin is the region between the last rib and 
the hips, constituting what has been referred to as the 
" coupling." One should look for a short, wide, muscular 
loin. When the back of the horse becomes weak the 
attack generally affects the loin first, and most violently; 
the horse sustaining an injury of this kind often losing the 
power to move. 

Underline. — The underline should be long and low, and 
the legs short. The horse with the long belly and the short 
back is the best-shaped animal. In the region of the flank, 
the animal should be low with no tendency toward " tuck- 
ing up," as this indicates an unthrifty animal. Deficiency 
in the region of the flank also means weakness of the 
thigh, a point in which the draft horse should be es- 
pecially strong. 

Hips. — From one hip point to the other, the horse should 
be wide, level, and well covered with muscle. The female 



2l8 



JUDGING HORSES 



is usually wider and roomier in this region than the male. 
In the mare width and roominess between the hips indi- 
cate good breeding qualities. 

Croup. — The croup of the horse corresponds to the rump 
of the meat-producing animal. It extends from the hips 





Fig. 84. — A croup of good draft type. 



Fig. 85. — A steep croup. 



back to the tail, and on the good horse is long, level, and 
wide. Steepness and shortness of the croup are common 
defects of horses. The horse with the short, steep croup 
can turn quickly. This is especially desirable in the 
case of the cattle pony. On the other hand, the horse 
with the long, flat croup can move with the greater 
rapidity in a straight line. 

Thighs. — The thigh bones extend from the hips to the 
stifle joints. The region below the croup and to the rear 
of the flank is known as the thigh. The thigh should be 
long, deep, and well covered with muscle. A horse that 
has strong thighs is a much stronger horse than the one 
that is deficient in this region. 

Quarters. — The flesh and muscles between the thigh 



HIND LEGS 



219 



bones are called the quarters. In this part of the body 
the horse should be plump, and well let down. The 
scant, shallow quarter indicates a weak horse and a poor 
feeder. 

Stifles. — The stifle is the joint between the thigh bone 
and the lower thigh or gaskin. In this region the horse 
should be well muscled, the joint large and strong and held 
up close to the body. 

Gaskins. — The gaskins, or lower thigh bones, extend 
from the stifle to the hock joints. They should be long, 
wide, and heavily covered with muscle, on both the outside 
and inside of the legs. 

Hocks. — The hock joint, located between the gaskin 
and the hind cannon bone, is the most important joint 







Fig. 86. — Side views of hind legs. The drawing on the left shows correct conforma- 
tion. The others show common defects. 




Fig. 87. — Rear views of hind legs. The drawing on the left shows correct con- 
formation. The others show common defects. 



220 JUDGING HORSES 

in the structure of the horse. It is the fulcrum of one of the 
principal levers of the animal's body, and through it must 
pass all the power utilized by the horse in pulling or moving 
about. 

The hocks should be large, to allow for perfect freedom 
of motion and for the attachment of muscles. From the 
front to the rear they should be deep, giving more power to 
the levers. They should be clean and free from puffiness, 
and it is of equal importance that they be free also from 
the unsoundnesses common to these parts, namely, spavin, 
curb, and thoroughpin. 

The proper setting or conformation of the hock may be 
determined by dropping a plumb-line from the point of the 
buttock down the rear of the hind leg as shown in Fig. 86 and 
Fig. 87. If the hock is properly shaped, the line will pass 
down the rear of the hind cannon bone from the hock to 
the heel, dividing the heel in the middle. Viewed from the 
side, the line should be parallel to the direction of the 
hind cannon bone. 

If the hock is too rounding, forming what is known as 
a " sickle hock," it is prone to unsoundness, especially 
curb, and is not so strong as a hock that is properly set. 
The hock may also be set too straight. 

Cannon Bones, Fetlocks, Pasterns, and Feet of the 
Hind Legs. — The cannon bones of the hind legs should 
have clean, strong tendons. The fetlock joints should be 
strong and free from puffiness. Special care should be given 
to examining the setting and length of the pasterns which 
should be moderately long and slope at an angle of 45 . 
The size and quality of the hind feet should be noticed for 
the same points that have already been discussed in the 
treatment of the front feet. 



SCORE CARD 



221 



SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 



Scale of Points 



Age. 



Possible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



Corrected 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — 29 POINTS 

Height; estimated hands ; actual 

Weight, over 1500 lb. estimated lb., score 

according to age 

Form, broad, massive, evenly proportioned, symmet- 
rical , blocky 

Quality, refined ; bones clean, large, strong ; tendons 

clean, defined, prominent; skin and hair fine; 

" feather," if present, silky 

Action, walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight; trot, 

free, springy, balanced, straight 

Temperament, energetic; disposition good 

HEAD AND NECK — 8 POINTS 

Head, proportionate size, clean cut, well carried; 

profile straight 

Forehead, broad, full 

Eyes, bright, clear, full, same color 

Ears, medium size, well carried, alert 

Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible ; lips thin, even, 

firm 

Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean 

Neck, muscled, arched; throatlatch fine, windpipe 

large 

FORE QUARTERS —22 POINTS 

Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, ex- 
tending well back 

Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown back, well set. . . . 

Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled 

Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean 

Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined, 

prominent 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean 

Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles 

concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic; 

heels wide, one half length of toe, vertical to ground 
BODY — 9 POINTS 

Chest, deep, wide ; breastbone low ; girth large 

Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 

Back, broad, strong, muscular 

Loins, short, wide, thick muscled 

Underline, low, flanks full 

HINDQUARTERS —32 POINTS 

Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled 

Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not markedly drooping 

Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular 

Quarters, plump with muscle, deep 

Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean 

Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, clean, heavily 

muscled 

Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set 

Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined, 

prominent 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean 

Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; 

SOles concave ; bars strong, full ; frogs large, elastic ; 

heels wide, o ne half length of toe, vertical to ground 
Total 



10 
3 



222 JUDGING HORSES 

JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 

In the light horse, long and slender bones and muscles 
are found. The levers and angles in the conformation of 
the light horse are all so arranged as to give the maximum 
speed, which is attained only at the loss of strength. The 
light horse is rangier and less compact in conformation than 
the draft horse. It is more refined as to quality, having 
finer and cleaner bones, and more clearly defined tendons. 

Weight. — The weights of light horses range from iooo 
pounds or less in the case of light roadsters to 1500 
pounds in the case of the heavy harness or coach horse. 

Height. — There is also great variation in the height of 
light horses, but horses less than 14 hands high are con- 
sidered as ponies. 

Form. — In form, the light horse should be symmetrical 
and stylish ; and instead of the blockiness of the draft 
horse, ranginess should be sought. 

Quality. — The quality of the light horse is easily studied 
because there is less flesh upon it than upon the heavy horse. 
When the hand is placed upon the animal, the coat should 
feel, soft and silky, and the skin fine. When rubbing down 
over the cannon bones, one should feel no superfluous meat 
beneath the skin, which should appear to fit the limbs of 
the horse much as a glove fits the hand. 

Action. — Attention to action is more important in judg- 
ing light horses than in judging draft animals. The trot, 
is, in this case, more important than the walk, and in the 
roadster types speed is sought as well. The walk should 
be fast, elastic, and straight, and the stride should be long. 
In the trot, great freedom of motion and " snappiness " are 
required. In action, the body should not be raised too high 



LIGHT HORSES 223 

from the ground, deviations from a straight line forward 
being objectionable. 

Temperament. — In temperament, the light horse should 
be active and alert with no tendency toward sluggishness, as 
is occasionally the case with the draft horse. 

Head and Neck. — The head of the light horse is pro- 
portionately smaller and more refined than that of the draft 
horse. The ears are smaller and more active and alert, 
and the eye generally shows signs of more life. The fore- 
head should be broad and full, and the muzzle large, with 
large nostrils for furnishing sufficient air. The neck does 
not require the extreme muscularity seen in the draft 
horse, and is longer and more slender. 

Shoulders. — The shoulders should be slight, sloping 
gently, and carried back well at the top with high withers. 
Height at the withers is essential in a horse built for speed, 
as it gives a better carriage to the head, and enables the ani- 
mal to lift its front feet higher from the ground, thus lending 
style to action. 

Arm, Forearm, and Knees. — The arm should be well 
muscled and long, throwing the elbow joint well back. 
The forearm should be strong and long from the elbow joint 
to the knee. The knees should be flat and broad, without 
coarseness or extra flesh. A common tendency to be 
slightly " buck kneed " or weak kneed should be guarded 
against. 

Cannon Bones and Fetlocks. — The cannon bones should 
be short in comparison with the length of the forearm. 
They should be well supported with strong tendons, and free 
from all roughness or tendency toward splints. The fet- 
lock joints should be strong and free from puffiness, which 
is very objectionable but quite common in light horses. 



224 JUDGING HORSES 

Pasterns. — Long and gently sloping pasterns, which are 
conducive to rapid, springy, and enduring action, are es- 
sential in light horses. 

Feet. — For work upon hard roads the feet should be of 
the best material. Large size is also very essential. Small, 
contracted, flaky hoofs are undesirable. 

Body. — The body of the horse should show the points 
that indicate stamina and endurance without too much 
tendency toward fleshiness. The chest should be roomy, 
giving capacity for the vital organs. Since thickness is 
undesirable, depth should be sought in this region. Deep, 
well-sprung ribs furnish capacity for food. The back should 
be broad, providing place for attachment of muscles, but 
great breadth may give the animal a " drafty " appear- 
ance, which is undesirable. The loin should be wide, thick, 
and short from the last rib to the hip. The flanks should 
be well let down and full, making the underline straight. 
A horse too high in the flank will be hard to keep and will 
have poor endurance. 

, Hindquarters. — The hindquarters should be studied 
very carefully, because upon the shape of these depends 
the speed ability of the horse. The hips should be level 
and wide without losing sight of the type of the animals. 
The croup should be well muscled, long, wide, and level, 
carrying out the symmetry of the horse. The long, level 
croup is found on the speedy horse. The thighs should be 
deep, strong, and muscular, without the plumpness found in 
the draft horse. The angle formed by the junction of the 
thigh bone and the hip bone should be large and open so 
that greater freedom for articulation may be obtained. 
The quarters should be well muscled and deep without the 
fleshiness found in the same region in the draft horse. The 



CARRIAGE AND SADDLE HORSES 225 

stifle should be well muscled, clean and large, insuring a 
strong joint ; and the gaskins or lower thighs should be well 
muscled and long. The hock of the light horse is as im- 
portant as that of the draft horse ; and if not sufficiently 
strong and well set is very prone to bog spavin, bone spavin, 
or curbs. Unsoundnesses show more on the light horse than 
they do on the draft animal. Since many of the light horses 
are used for fancy driving purposes, it is of great importance 
that the hocks should be well set, strong, and free from 
pufhness. 

The rear cannon bones should be short, wide, strong, and 
clean, with clearly defined, hard, prominent tendons. The 
hind pasterns should be long and slope gently. 

All that has been said concerning the front feet applies 
with equal force to the hind feet. 

JUDGING CARRIAGE HORSES, ROADSTERS, AND 

SADDLE HORSES 

The carriage horse is one that can pull a fair-sized load 
with some speed. Such horses should weigh 1250 to 1450 
pounds, and have round, well-muscled bodies and strong, 
hard, flat, muscular limbs. The pasterns of carriage horses 
should be strong and sufficiently long to give the animal 
a springy, stylish action. These horses should also possess 
all the marks of endurance, such as a deep round chest; 
strong wide back ; short couple ; depth at the flank ; clear 
bright eyes ; and large muzzles. 

The roadster is designed for speed. This type has been 
developed by selecting and mating the speediest horses 
without regard to conformation, so the type evolved is the 
result of selecting those that made the best records. The 
roadster weighs about 1000 pounds, and has speedy action, 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 1 5 



226 JUDGING HORSES 

without regard to style. The roadster and trotting horses 
are extreme types of light horses, and while endurance is 
the main consideration, the horse should be free from all 
fleshiness. The limbs should be flat, long, and strong, the 
pasterns gently sloping and long, and the feet large and 
of good quality. The body should be rangy and closely 
ribbed up to the hip. The animal should be refined, the 
hair fine and silky, the skin thin and of fine quality, and the 
veins prominent. 

The Saddle Horse. — The American saddle horse is a 
distinct type. The saddle horse is stylish, and strong, with 
an easy, springy gait. In judging the saddle horse par- 
ticular attention should be paid to his gaits, and the readi- 
ness with which he performs. The gaits of the saddle horse 
are : (i) walk, (2) trot, (3) rack, (4) canter, (5) slow pace, 
(6) running walk, (7) fox trot. 

Gaits. — The three natural gaits of the horse are the walk, 
the trot, and the gallop. Occasionally there are natural 
pacers, but they are not common. In the walk, the hind 
foot on one side is brought forward and is placed upon the 
ground near the spot where the front foot of the same side 
was placed and almost immediately after it had left the 
ground. The trot is an angular gait, the front foot of one 
side and the hind foot of the opposite side being carried 
forward at the same time. In the pace the front foot 
and the hind foot on one side are carried forward at the 
same time. This gives the horse a swaying motion. In 
the single-foot or rack each foot touches the ground 
at a different time. It may be called a " slow gait," 
but is somewhat faster than the walk, and is one which 
the horse can keep up for a great length of time. The 
canter is a slow gallop, a very easy riding gait, easily 



PONIES 



227 




Fig. 88. — Combination harness and saddle horse. 

taught to the horse. The running walk is faster than 
the walk, but slower than the pace or trot, and an 
easier riding gait than either. The slow pace is a some- 
what similar gait, but is more like the pace than the 
running walk. The fox trot is a sort of jog trot, and is 
not so desirable as the slow pace and the rack. If a horse 
has five of the above gaits he is a gaited saddle horse ; and 
the breeding, conformation, and style of the horse, together 
with the manner in which he performs these gaits, determine 
his value. 



JUDGING PONIES 

All the rules for judging horses apply to the judging of 
ponies, which are in reality small horses. In this country 
ponies are kept mainly for pleasure purposes. Americans 



228 



JUDGING HORSES 



SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 



Scale of Points 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — 30 POINTS 

Weight, estimated in lbs 

Height, estimated in hands 

Height, 15 hands or over 

Form, type — symmetrical, smooth, stylish 

Quality, refined; bone clean, fine, tendons clean, de- 
fined, prominent ; hair and skin fine 

Action, walk long, fast, elastic, regular, straight; 
trot rapid, regular, straight, balanced 

Temperament, active, disposition good 

HEAD AND NECK — 10 POINTS 

Head, proportionate, well carried, features well de- 
fined, profile straight 

Forehead, broad, full 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large, same color 

Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried, alert 

Muzzle, neat, nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, firm, 
even 

Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean 

Neck, muscled, arched; throatlatch fine; windpipe 

large 

FOREQUARTERS — 20 POINTS 

Shoulder, long, sloping, smooth, extending well back 

Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown back, well set. . . . 

Forearm, long, wide, clean muscled 

Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean, strongly 
supported 

Cannons, short, clean, wide, tendons large, hard, 
clean, prominent , 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

Pasterns, lengthy, sloping, strong, clean 

Feet, medium size, even, sound; horn dense, waxy; 
soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elas- 
tic; heels wide, one half length of toe , 

BODY — 10 POINTS 

Withers, high, extending well back 

Chest, deep, low ; girth large , 

Ribs, deep, well sprung , 

Back, broad, strong, muscular , 

Loins, short, wide, thick muscled, close coupled 

Underline, low, flanks full, well let down , 

HINDQUARTERS — 30 POINTS 

Hips, smooth, wide, level , 

Croup, long, wide, muscular, not drooping , 

Tail, attached high, well carried , 

Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular 

Quarters, deep, plump with muscle , 

Stifles, strong, muscular, clean 

Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, muscular 

Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set 

Cannons, short, clean, wide; tendons large, hard, 
clean, prominent 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

Pasterns, strong, sloping, springy, clean 

Feet, medium size, even, sound; horn dense, waxy; 
soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elas- 
tic ; heels, wide 

Total 



Possible 
Score 



15 
3 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



Corrected 



MULES AND BREEDING CLASSES 229 

desire more style and action in the small ponies than is 
required in the countries to which the ponies are native. 
Cleanness of bone, freedom from all unsoundnesses, sym- 
metry of body, and all the other essentials of a good horse 
should be found in ponies. 

JUDGING MULES 

The mule is produced for work in warm climates and 
should be judged as a work animal. The mule type, how- 
ever, is different from that of the work horse. Height is 
one of the most important factors in determining the value 
of a mule, size being very important. Quality is also given 
great consideration, mules of good quality selling better 
than rough ones. The same relationship of parts that ob- 
tains in the case of horses should be found in mules. The 
feet of the mule are long and narrow like those of the ass, 
and should be of as good quality as horses' feet. 

JUDGING BREEDING CLASSES 

In judging breeding classes, the judge should first be 
familiar with the type sought for by the best breeders. 
This presupposes a knowledge of the breed and breed re- 
quirements. Even though one animal may be better fitted 
for market and may be more useful than another, it is not 
eligible for highest rank in the show ring if it lacks the type 
set forth in the standard established by the breed association. 

Unsoundness and poor conformation should be looked for 
with great care, because, while unsoundnesses are not in- 
herited directly, the predisposition toward them is inherited. 
Blemishes that would lower the market price of the animal 
are not so serious in breeding classes, although they are 



230 JUDGING HORSES 

objectionable. Breed types should be given precedence 
over blemishes in the selection of breeding animals. Ani- 
mals that are so defective as to impair their breeding powers 
should be disqualified. 

EXERCISES 

i. What is the first thing to be sought in judging heavy 
draft horses? Driving horses? 

2. What unsoundness disqualifies for either class of horses? 

3. How does the show ring judge go about to "throw out" 
the poorest animals? To "place" the rest? 

4. Describe how you would "show" the action of a horse. 
How would you judge it? 

5. Name and describe the various kinds of defective action. 

HOME PROJECT 

Select the best colt or horse on the home farm and fit it for 
show. Show the animal yourself in the judging ring. 



CHAPTER XIII 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 

Stables. — The horse barn should be roomy, well lighted, 
and ventilated, and should be kept free from chickens or 
other animals that may introduce parasites to infest the 
horse. The stable should be thoroughly cleaned at least 
twice daily, morning and evening, and fresh bedding pro- 
vided at the evening cleaning. 

Grooming. — Horses should be thoroughly groomed 
every morning. In the spring of the year especial care 
should be given to this work. During the winter they 
grow heavy coats of hair. When put into the work har- 
ness in spring their profuse sweating loosens the hair. 
If this loose hair is not removed by currying, it will make 
the horse both uncomfortable and unsightly. Their 
shoulders and necks should be carefully watched. It is 
a good practice to wash them after each day's work. For 
harness galls, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of 
cure. The best cure for sore shoulders and necks is rest 
and removal of the cause. In the spring it is well to clip 
the hair from the fetlocks, so that the animal's legs can 
be more easily kept clean. 

Food Requirements of the Work Horse. — A work horse 
more nearly resembles a machine than any other animal 
kept on the farm. The hard-worked horse needs energy- 
giving and tissue-building material in its feed to supply 

231 



232 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 

power and to repair the great waste that goes on during 
a siege of hard work. The horse may start in the spring 
fat and sleek, and before the heavy fall work is completed, 
the cellular structure of the body may have been torn 
down and rebuilt many times. This calls for protein in 
the ration ; and the energy that must be supplied necessi- 
tates carbohydrate and fat material. 

A good grain mixture for the horse consists of 3 parts 
of oats, 2 parts of corn, and 1 part of bran by weight. In 
feeding horses, a safe rule to follow is to allow one pound 
of grain daily for each 100 pounds of live weight of the 
animal, and to increase this amount if the horse is hard 
at work. The horse at extra hard work will require about 
50 per cent mere grain than is called for by the above rule. 
Draft horses weighing 1600 pounds will therefore require 
8 pounds of grain three times daily when at hard work. 

Roughage. — A horse will consume daily about 1 pound 
of roughage for each 100 pounds of live weight. Tim- 
othy hay is the roughage most commonly fed. Clover hay 
of good quality, bright, and free from dust, may be fed 
safely. Mixed hay consisting of blue grass and timothy, 
or other grasses, is excellent. Alfalfa hay is fed almost 
entirely in western sections, and horses work well on it in 
spite of the fact that it makes them sweat freely and 
causes a larger secretion of urine. If corn silage is fed, it 
must be of good quality, free from mold, and must be fed in 
moderate amounts. 

Precaution. — When the work horse gets a day or two 
of rest, the ration should be decreased. During a resting 
time the horse accustomed to hard work will, if allowed 
to do so, eat more feed than can be utilized by the body. 
A great many cases of a disease known as " Azoturia," 



FEEDING 233 

sometimes called " Monday morning disease," result from 
feeding horses heavily when they are idle over Sunday and 
are given no exercise. Farm horses should be turned on to 
a short pasture when not at work. This gives the animal 
an opportunity to roll, get a bite of grass, and sufficient 
exercise to prevent disorders due to overfeeding. The 
animal will not need the noon feed, and in the evening a 
lighter feed than usual may be given. If horses are not 
used to it, too much grass may produce colic. 

In case horses cannot be turned out, a good plan is to 
give the regular grain feed at breakfast time and cut the 
noon and evening meals in half. The old custom of feed- 
ing a bran mash on idle days has been quite generally 
abandoned. A small allowance of bran in the daily ra- 
tion is nutritious, and its mild laxative effect will keep 
the animal's digestive tract in good condition. Horses 
should not be fed or watered when very hot. It is often 
fatal to the animal ; or founder and stiffness may result, 
from the effects of which horses seldom recover. 

The Brood Mare. — The brood mare should be treated 
with more consideration than the work horse. It is better 
to work the brood mare than to deprive her of the oppor- 
tunity to get sufficient exercise. She should not be allowed 
to " rough it " in winter. It is not necessary to keep her 
in a warm stable if she is given sufficient wholesome, 
nourishing food, but good colts should not be expected 
from dams forced to go through the winter on hay and 
straw alone. The dam must be fed tissue-building ma- 
terials. A good grain mixture consists of 3 parts of 
oats and 1 part of bran. Good timothy or mixed hay 
is satisfactory for roughage, and some cut hay may be 
introduced into the grain ration. 



234 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 

Working the Brood Mare. — If the brood mare is needed 
as a work horse, she should be given some light work. 
Such service as fast driving on the road or plowing in a 
four-horse team should not be expected from her. The 
brood mare should at all times be handled quietly, care- 
fully, and kindly. 

Feeds for the Young Foal. — Grain should be supplied 
in a separate box to the young foal as soon as it has learned 
to eat grain from its mother's feed box. Oats is the best 
grain for the young colt, and this should be fed in small 
amounts at first. A safe rule to follow in supplying grain 
to the foal is to allow from 2 to 3 pounds of grain daily 
up to the age of one year; 4 to 5 pounds daily between 
the ages of one and two years ; and 7 to 8 pounds of grain 
daily between the age of two and three years. The same 
amount of roughage may be allowed the young horse, 
though these allowances are subject to wide variation. 

The young horse should be liberally fed so as to acquire 
one half its mature weight at the age of twelve months. 
Only during the growing period can the animal be properly 
developed, so that it may later attain its greatest possible 
size. At this time feeds rich in protein and mineral matter 
should be given to develop muscles and bones. After 
being weaned the foal should be fed liberally on such feeds 
as oats, bran, and linseed oil meal. Cut alfalfa hay, cow- 
peas, soy beans, and skim milk may also be introduced 
into the ration at this time to good advantage. 

Orphan Foals. — Orphan foals are often reared upon 
modified cow's milk. Cow's milk is higher in fat and 
lower in sugar and mineral matter than mare's milk, and 
when fed to the young foal limewater and sugar should 
be added. At all times the milk should be fed warm, and 



EXERCISES 235 

strict attention should be given to cleanliness and sanitary 
conditions in preparing food for the young foal. 

Colic in Horses. — Colic causes more deaths among 
horses than any other single complaint. It is of two 
kinds, spasmodic or cramp colic, and flatulent or wind 
colic. Spasmodic colic is the more violent and comes 
on more rapidly. Injudicious feeding, standing in drafts 
of air, and drinking too much cold water are some of 
ths causes of spasmodic colic. The horse tramps in the 
stall, paws, bends the knees, turns the head around to 
the side, has a worried look, lies down and rolls, and 
shows other signs of distress. The pain comes periodi- 
cally ; the horse for a few minutes seems well, then the 
symptoms of the trouble suddenly reappear. Flatulent or 
wind colic comes on more slowly, and is caused by fer- 
mentation of food in the large intestine. Proper feeding 
and care will prevent most of the attacks of colic. 

In all cases of colic it is much better to call a reliable 
veterinarian than to resort to home treatment. 

EXERCISES 

1. Does fast driving have any effect upon the amount of 
feed required by horses ? If so, what ? 

2. What special attention does the farm work horse require 
in spring ? 

3. Why do horses need more concentrated feeds than cattle? 
Can a work horse be kept in condition on rough feed? Why? 

4. Describe a good method by which a young foal may be 
raised by hand. 

HOME PROJECT 

Take entire care of the farm work horses or the driving team 
for any given period, using the best of methods in this work. 



CHAPTER XIV 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 

The Cattle to Keep for Beef. — The cattle to keep for 
beef should be of the beef type. Such animals produce 
the greatest amount of high-priced meat from a given 
amount of food. 

Care of the Cow and Calf. — In rearing calves for beef 
purposes on high-priced land, there are several methods 
that may be followed. One practice is to milk the cow 
and raise the calf upon skim milk and grain. This method 
is the cheapest. The calf will eat a grain ration after it 
is weaned and will do well, with very little shrinkage. This 
method presupposes, however, that the cows are good 
milkers. It is not advisable to follow it with calves from 
the dairy breeds. 

Rearing Two Calves with One Cow. — Another practice 
is to place two calves with one cow and milk the extra 
cows, or buy calves to place with them. The two calves 
do well, but at weaning time they shrink more than calves 
reared on skim milk and grain. When two are reared by 
one cow, they should not be allowed to run with the 
cow in the pasture, but should be turned with her 
night and morning. The calves should be watched while 
feeding ; otherwise the stronger one will rob the weaker. 
In addition to the milk from the cow, the calves should 
have a liberal feeding of grain. They should be started 

236 



FEEDING FOR BEEF PRODUCTION 237 

upon the grain ration while quite young, because they 
will have to be weaned at the early age of four or five 
months. 

If single calves are allowed to run with the cows, it re- 
duces the labor bill to the minimum, but is advisable 
only upon very cheap land, or in the production of high- 
priced breeding stock. Such calves should be weaned at 
the age of five or six months. In exceptional cases, when 
calves are being fitted for show, they may be allowed to 
nurse until they are fifteen or eighteen months of age. 
Any of the above methods will produce good beef cattle, 
provided the animals have the proper breeding. 

Care of the Beef Sire. — On the farm where cattle are 
kept for the production of beef, the sire should receive 
just as good care as on the dairy farm. He should have 
a pen with a paddock in connection where he may exercise. 
While he should receive sufficient feed to keep him in good 
condition, he should not be kept fat. • Alfalfa or clover hay 
with a limited amount of silage of good quality for rough- 
age, and a grain ration made up of corn, oats, and bran, if 
not fed in excess, will keep him in a healthy condition. 

" Baby Beef " Production. — The production of " baby 
beef ' requires great care and intelligent feeding. The 
industry has arisen because of the scarcity of feeding 
cattle, due to the high price of western land upon which 
feeders are now produced. 

In this method, the beef producer feeds the calves 
liberally from the time they are born until they are mar- 
keted. " The calf is not allowed to lose its calf fat." 
These animals are sold at from 12 to 18 months of age. 
They should weigh from 800 to 1000 pounds each, and 
they should be fat, and smooth, and of good quality. 



238 CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 

The advantages of " baby beef " production are: 

1. The cattle are not kept so long on the farm. This 
makes it possible to maintain a large breeding herd to 
produce more calves. 

2. Capital is turned over faster. 

3. The percentage of weight given by the dam is 
greater. 

4. The market favors the lighter animal that will pro- 
duce smaller cuts of meat. 

5. The young animal gains more economically than the 
older one. 

The disadvantages of the method are : 

1. Young animals require greater care and more skill in 
feeding. 

2. The animals must be well finished when sent to the 
market, or they will be turned back again to the country 
as " feeders," for which a lower price is paid. 

3. The animals must be very uniform in conformation 
and quality to command a good price. 

4. To fatten them requires a long feeding period, be- 
cause young animals have a tendency to grow instead of 
fatten. 

In the summer time it is poor practice to allow the 
calves to eat too heavily of grass, because grass has a 
tendency to produce scours. The grain ration may con- 
sist of corn. With this some bran should be fed, and 
toward the end of the feeding period some cottonseed 
meal added. If possible either alfalfa or clover hay should 
be given for roughage. Timothy hay is undesirable, 
although, if nothing better can be furnished, mixed hay 
will prove quite satisfactory. Corn silage helps to cheapen 
the gains and keeps the animals in good condition. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 239 

Feeding Older Cattle. — A common practice is to buy 
cattle at about the age of two years and feed them 
until they are fat enough for the market. These cattle 
may be fed from 60 to 90 days, known as " the short 
feeding period," or from 120 to 180 days, called " the 
long feeding period." Cattle that have been fed for the 
short feeding period are called " short fed cattle," and 
those fed the long period are called " long fed cattle." 

Starting Cattle on Feed. — Cattle should be started on 
feed gradually. Only a small allowance of concentrated 
feed should be given. The coarser and cheaper the feed 
stuffs given at the beginning, the easier it is to get the 
cattle up to " full feed." 

Full Feed. — Cattle are on " full feed " when they are 
consuming the maximum allowance of heavy concentrated 
feeds such as corn and cottonseed meal. It takes from 
two to four weeks to get cattle on full feed, depending 
upon the kind and condition of the cattle. Young cattle 
go on to full feed somewhat more slowly than older cattle, 
and the feeder should be more cautious with young cattle 
because they get " off their feed " more easily. Cattle 
in good flesh and used to feeding will go on to full feed 
more quickly than will thin cattle unused to being fed. 

The Feeds for Beef Cattle. — For feeding beef cattle, 
corn should form the principal part of the fattening ration. 
When on full feed, the steer will consume from 12 to 15 
pounds of shelled corn per 1000 pounds of live weight 
daily. In connection with corn the steer should get 
from 2\ to 3 pounds of cottonseed meal or linseed meal. 
The general rule for the feeding of cottonseed meal is to 
give 3 pounds daily per 1000 pounds of live weight. The 
animals should be watched carefully to see that they do 



240 CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 

not overeat on the meal. The amount of the meal should 
be decreased after the steers have been fed for a period of 
about ioo days, and in some cases it may be taken out of 
the ration entirely. For roughage, well-cured clover hay 
is excellent. Where it can be obtained at a reasonable 
figure alfalfa is probably the best roughage for fattening 
cattle. However, care should be exercised in feeding it, 
or bloat may result. This is especially true when the 
alfalfa is damp or wet. Timothy hay is an expensive 
roughage. Besides being high in price it does not produce 
the gains that are obtained from the alfalfa or clover. 
Corn silage should be fed to beef cattle because it reduces 
the amount of grain needed and keeps the animals healthy. 
Steers will consume about 15 to 20 pounds of silage and 
from 6 to 8 pounds of alfalfa or clover, daily, per 1000 
pounds of live weight. As steers grow fat, the amount of 
roughage may be lowered and the amount of grain in- 
creased. A suitable day's ration for the 1000-pound steer 
consists of 12 to 15 pounds of shelled corn, 2 to 3 pounds 
of cottonseed meal, 6 to 8 pounds of alfalfa or clover hay, 
and 15 to 20 pounds of corn silage. Steers should average 
from 2\ to 3 pounds of gain per day on such a ration. 

Hogs Following Steers. — The steer feeder always has 
hogs following the steers to pick up the waste corn. The 
best way to feed corn to steers is on the ear, with hogs 
following. A great many steer feeders are content if the 
steers pay only for the cost of feeding. They make the 
profit on the hogs which follow the cattle in the feed lot. 
Active, vigorous pigs weighing from 100 to 150 pounds 
are the best for this purpose. However, the pigs should 
have some feed besides what they pick up after the cattle. 
The number of pigs per steer varies with the condition of 



EQUIPMENT FOR FEEDING 



241 



the cattle and the way the feed is prepared. If whole 
corn is fed, one pig per steer is about the right proportion. 
Equipment. — Feeding beef cattle does not require ex- 
pensive equipment. All tests show that steers do best 
under conditions where they have plenty of freedom. The 
fattening steer is protected by a heavy coat of hair, and 
when he becomes fat, the layer of fat is of itself a protec- 




Fig. 89. — Typical heavy load of fat steers. 

tion against cold. He is also evolving a great deal of 
heat in building up tissue and taking care of his food. 
The experience of feeders is that the steers do better in 
steady, cold weather than in warm, soft, muggy, or change- 
able weather. 

Barns or Open Sheds. — Barns are handier for feeding, 
but an open shed, well bedded and dry, with a south and 
east exposure, gives the best satisfaction. Some feeders 
prefer to provide the cattle only with windbreaks. This 
is good practice in the southern part of the corn belt, but 
on its northern edge the cattle are better off if provided 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. l6 



242 CARE OF BEEF CATTLE 

with cover to protect them from snows and cold rains. 
These sheds need not be expensive. The cheapness of 
equipment is one of the arguments in favor of steer 
feeding. 

Self-feeders or Open Feed Troughs. — Cattle may be 
fed from open feed bunks or troughs, or they may have 
their feed given to them in self-feeders. In the self-feeder, 
the feed is put into a large hopper from which it works 
down as the cattle eat it out below. The self-feeder saves 
considerable labor, and if the farmer must employ help 
incapable of feeding wisely, the self-feeder may obviate 
trouble which might arise from overfeeding. On the 
other hand, a good cattle feeder will get better results 
if the feeding is supervised, as must be the case when 
open feed troughs are used. 

Water. — Fattening cattle require considerable water, 
which must be fresh, clean, and pure. The supply should 
be easily accessible so that the cattle may drink at will. 
In cold weather the chill should be taken from the water 
by the use of a tank heater, but care should be taken not 
to heat the water enough to make it unpalatable. 

Advantages of Steer Feeding. — The general advantages 
of steer feeding are : 

i. It saves labor. 

2. It uses the roughage of the farm. 

3. It returns a large amount of fertility to the land. 

4. It makes a good return on grain and feed. 

EXERCISES 

1. Why are Holstein cows frequently found in a beef herd? 

2. Can baby beef be produced as economically on the same 
farm as that from three-year-old steers? Discuss. 



EXERCISES 243 

3. Which will do better on a wide ration, a fattening steer 
or a dairy cow? Why? 

4. Why do beef cattle do better in open sheds than in warm 
barns ? 

HOME PROJECT 

Feed a lot of steers until finished for market. Keep accurate 
records of cost, rations, returns, and profits. 



CHAPTER XV 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 

The Cattle to Keep for the Dairy. — The dairy breeds of 
cattle have been improved by the selection of breeding stock 
from the best producing families. The farmer who engages 
in the milk producing business will save time by buying 
representative cows of dairy breeds, or cows that give evi- 
dences of dairy breeding. A good pure-bred sire of one of 
the dairy breeds should be selected to head this herd. In 
improving the herd, records obtained by weighing and 
testing the milk of the individual cows of the herd should be 
studied for the purpose of eliminating the poor cows. 

The Advantages of Dairying. — As already stated, the 
dairy cow is the most economical producer of human food 
from the coarse materials raised upon the farm. For ex- 
ample, the cow, Missouri Chief Josephine, in a period 
of twelvemonths gave 26,861.0 pounds of milk, containing 
740.5 pounds of fat. The total solids in her milk weighed 
3330 pounds, consisting of 740.5 pounds of fat, 815 pounds 
of protein material, 1579 pounds of milk sugar, and 195 
pounds of ash material. All of this was human food. A 
steer weighing 1250 pounds was found to contain in its body 
548 pounds of dry matter, which included not only the edible 
portions but also a great deal of bone and other refuse. Of 
the dry matter in the body of the steer t,^^ pounds was fat, 
172 pounds was protein, and 43 pounds was ash material. 

244 



DAIRY EQUIPMENT 245 

The cow in one year's time produced over six times as much 
dry matter as was found in the carcass of the steer, over 
twice as much fat, and almost five times as much ash. She 
also produced over three fourths of a ton of nutritious milk 
sugar. In addition she produced a calf, and was as valuable 
at the end of the year as at the beginning. To get the food 
material from the steer he had to be fed more than two 
years before being slaughtered. 

Dairying is the most intensive form of animal husbandry 
that can be practiced on high-priced land. The price of 
manufactured dairy products is always higher than meat 
products. There is less waste in handling them, they stand 
transportation over long distances, and are easily kept over 
long periods of time. 

Equipment. — Successful dairying depends in a large de- 
gree upon the care and management of the cows in the herd, 
The farm of the practical dairyman should be well equipped 
with good dairy buildings. Roomy, well-lighted, well-ven- 
tilated barns that are warm in the winter and cool in the 
summer are a necessity. Windows should be provided with 
shades or otherwise equipped so that they may be dark- 
ened in the summer during fly time. 

Barns should be whitewashed on the inside at least twice 
annually, and if possible the ceiling of the stable should be 
covered so that no beams are exposed where dirt and disease 
germs can find lodgment. The stables should be kept 
clean, and if it is not possible to drive through the barn to 
clean it, a litter carrier should be provided. Whether the 
cows should stand facing each other or not is a matter of 
opinion. The feeding operation is simplified when they face 
each other, and if more time and labor are devoted to feeding 
than to cleaning the barn it is more economical. If a litter 



246 CARE OF DAIRY CATTLE 

carrier is used, it should have direct communication with a 
covered pit so built as to save the manure. 

Care of the Cow. — The cow is the unit of the herd, and 
the success of the whole depends upon the care of each unit. 
During all operations in the handling of dairy cows clean- 
liness should prevail. The cows should be brushed daily. 
Their udders should be wiped with a damp cloth 
previous to milking. It is also good practice to use milk 
pails with small tops, so that the amount of dust and dirt 
falling into the pail will be reduced to the minimum. Milk- 
ers should practice " dry hand " milking, and should change 
from their dirty field clothes to clean outer garments before 
beginning to milk. All these precautions not only tend to 
keep the milk clean, but also help the dairyman to improve 
conditions generally. 

The cow should be well cared for at all times, fed liberally, 
and should receive utmost kindness from the hands of the 
herdsman. All unnecessary excitement, fright, and injury 
should be carefully avoided. In commercial dairying it is 
well to separate the calf from the cow two or three days 
after birth so that she will not become attached to it. 
However, if one is raising valuable pure-bred calves, they 
may be allowed to remain for a week or more if desired. 

If the cow is a heavy milker she should be watched 
for milk fever. The farm should be provided with an 
outfit for the treatment of this malady. The most effec- 
tive method is that of simply inflating the udder with air. 

In the case of young cows, the first milking period deter- 
mines the future persistency of the cow. The heifer should 
be milked by a competent milker, and should be kept in 
milk as long as possible. This will tend to lengthen her 
future lactation periods. 



FEEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION 247 

Feeding the Dairy Cow. — It must be remembered that 
the dairy cow uses a part of her ration for maintenance. 
Only that portion of the food which she receives in excess of 
that needed for maintenance can be used for the production 
of milk, the nourishing of the calf, or the laying on of fat. 
Nature, however, in providing for the young animal, made 
the milking function so strong in the cow that she will rob 
her own system in order to provide for her young. 

Maintenance and Production Requirements. — Main- 
tenance requirements are not heavy. The most food is 
required to supply the heat of the body. Heat may be 
furnished by roughages. In the feeding of dairy cows, the 
roughage part of the ration, therefore, should be considered 
as the part that the animal is using for her own maintenance. 

The production of milk should be regarded as hard work, 
and the dairy cow should be fed accordingly. All cows do 
not respond equally well to feeding, because some cows have 
greater milk-producing possibilities than others. Good 
cows should be fed liberally because they make good use 
of their food, and require no more for maintenance than 
poor cows require. Good cows eat more than poor cows do, 
but they return much larger results. For milk production, 
concentrates are usually fed. 

How the Ration of the Cow Should Vary. — There are 
many factors affecting the ration, the more important ones 
being the weight of the cow, the amount of milk the cow 
produces, the season of the year, the period of lactation, 
the quarters in which the cow is kept, and the physical 
condition and peculiarities of the animal. 

The roughage allowance for a 1000 pound dairy cow is 
generally about 30 pounds of silage, and from 6 to 10 pounds 
of good mixed clover or alfalfa hay. Timothy hay is not 



248 CARE OF DAIRY CATTLE 

a good feed for a milk cow. In addition to this roughage 
allowance, the cow should receive one pound of good grain 
mixture per day for each pound of butter fat produced 
weekly. The grain mixture should be made up of at least 
three different grains or concentrated feeds. It is well to 
grind feeds for dairy cows. 

According to weight the ration should be made to vary 
directly, heavy cows .requiring more feed than light ones. 

In the summer time the cows will do well on pasture dur- 
ing the early part of the season, but as soon as fly time comes 
on and the pasture gets dry, the cows should be kept in the 
barn during the heat of the day, at least, and be fed fresh-cut 
green crops or " summer silage," which is simply silage kept 
over until the summer time. If the cow is an exceptionally 
good one it pays to feed her about one half of her regular 
grain ration while on pasture. 

Water and Salt. — Dairy cows should at all times have 
free access to salt and water. Barns are now built equipped 
with drinking cups and salt licks for each cow. During the 
period of lactation, a cow will drink much more water than 
during the period in which she is not in milk. 

Tuberculosis in Cattle. — Tuberculosis is one of the 
worst diseases with which the farmer has to contend. 
It thrives best where animals are kept in confinement and 
under unnatural conditions. On the open range very little 
of it is known. Cattle kept in well- ventilated barns are not 
as liable to contract the disease as those housed in filthy 
and poorly ventilated stables. Hence this disease is more 
dreaded by dairymen than by the producers of beef cattle. 
It also attacks hogs and chickens, but is most destructive 
in cattle, and is but little prevalent in horses and sheep. 

Tuberculosis is caused by the tubercle bacillus. It may 



TUBERCULOSIS 249 

appear in two forms, the acute and the chronic. An animal 
attacked by the acute form shows rapid decline and dies 
in a few months. In the chronic form the diseased animal 
may live for years and yet show no outward signs. It is the 
insidious nature of the disease that makes it so dangerous. 

The disease is spread by inhaling or swallowing the germs 
which are given off from the body of affected animals. 
The disease may also be contracted from the milk of dis- 
eased animals, especially if the udder is affected. Human 
beings, especially young children, may contract the disease 
from the milk of tubercular cows ; and pigs may contract it 
in like manner, or by consuming waste around infected 
regions, and eating offal and carcasses of tubercular cattle. 

Incipient tuberculosis in animals has no outward symp- 
toms, though in the advanced stages of the disease there is a 
general appearance of un thrift, such as a staring coat, a list- 
less eye, a hanging head, drooping ears, lack of ambition, 
loss of appetite, a hacking cough, and general emaciation, 
even though the animal be well fed and cared for. There are 
many other diseases that have the same general symptoms, 
but there is an infallible test for tuberculosis known as the 
tuberculin test. If the animal responds to this test it should 
be killed, as there is no absolute cure. 

Prevention. — In order to keep the disease out of a herd 
there are certain rules that should be followed. All new 
animals brought into the herd should be tested before being 
placed with the herd. Animals reacting to the tuberculin 
test should be eliminated from the herd. Well- ventilated 
and well-lighted stables should be provided and kept well 
disinfected with some good disinfecting solution. 

The tuberculin test should not be applied to a herd except 
by a skilled veterinarian or other competent person. 



250 CARE OF DAIRY CATTLE 

Milk Fever. — Milk fever affects the best cared for and 
apparently the healthiest cows in the herd. It usually 
appears in the early period of lactation. The cow falls to 
the ground, holding her head around to one side. Her 
throat seems paralyzed, and she cannot swallow. The dis- 
ease is caused by an excess of nutrition in the udder, brought 
on by overfeeding and lack of exercise. The cow should be 
given neither food nor medicine. 

The treatment consists of inflating the udder with air, 
either by using a regular milk fever outfit, with which every 
farm should be equipped, or by inserting a sterilized milking 
tube into the udder and pumping in air with a sterilized 
bicycle pump. After the udder is inflated tape may be 
wound around the teats if necessary to keep the air from 
escaping. If the air is absorbed in four or five hours and 
relief has not come to the cow, the inflation should be 
repeated. Usually the cow recovers quickly after the first 
treatment. 

EXERCISES 

1. What special precautions need be taken in the manage- 
ment of the dairy cow? 

2. How do the cow and the steer compare in the ability to 
convert grain and hay into human food ? Give figures to prove 
your answer. 

3. Why is cleanliness of such great importance in the manage- 
ment of the dairy herd? 

4. Which needs the narrower ration, the heavy or the light 
milker ? Why ? 

HOME PROJECT 

Raise a calf from birth to six months of age by the most 
approved methods ; keeping accurate records. 



CHAPTER XVI 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 

Economy of Sheep. — Sheep usually yield as good re- 
turns as any other class of live stock. The expenditure for 
buildings and the capital required to become established 
in the business are small, the gains made by sheep are 
economical, and mutton is constantly growing in popu- 
larity. Besides the mutton produced, the sheep also 
yields a crop of wool which is often sufficient to pay for the 
cost of maintaining the breeding animal throughout the 
year. Sheep are great weed eradicators. They will rid a 
farm of weeds if allowed to graze over badly infested fields, 
leaving valuable manure to enrich the soil. If allowed to 
remain in the pasture at night, they seek the highest ground. 
In this way fertility is left on the uplands, where it does 
the most good. 

In parts of England, the farming industry has actually 
been established and made permanent by the use of sheep, 
and lands that at one time were practically worthless for 
producing good crops are now returning handsome profits. 
So profitable are a few sheep on many farms where they are 
fed that the animal has justly been termed " the golden 
hoof." 

Sheep Feeding. — Sheep feeding is a popular industry. 
The breeding flock is kept cheaply on the range, where 
lambs are produced in large numbers. When they reach 

251 



252 



CARE OF SHEEP 



about 60 pounds in weight they are shipped to some of 
the large central markets and sold to feeders who fatten 
and return them to the market. There is often good profit 
in this feeding business, and a great deal of fertility is 
added to farms where this system is followed. 

Another branch of the industry is the production of 
lambs commonly known as " hot-house lambs." The 




Fig. 90. — Lambs of the average mutton type. 

majority of the lambs are sold in the fall, weighing from 75 
to 100 pounds, and young lambs placed upon the market in 
the winter and early spring readily command a high price. 
Dorset sheep produce lambs any time of the year and are 
therefore valuable for winter lamb production. The winter 
lamb should be kept in good quarters and should receive 
careful attention. To bring the best price the lambs 
should be well fattened and weigh from 50 to 60 pounds 
when ready for market. 

Conditions of the Large Producer. — Where sheep are 
produced in large numbers on the ranges, pasture forms 
the larger part of their feed. The cost of production is 
low, because of the cheapness of the land and the small 



HANDLING AND STABLING 253 

amount of labor required. The sheep are handled in large 
flocks and are generally cared for by herders, who move the 
flocks with the pasture, going into the highlands in the 
summer and to the valleys or lowlands for the winter. As 
the weather becomes warm in the spring the movement 
begins, and by following near the snow line, fresh and 
nutritious grasses are obtained. However, the open range 
is rapidly disappearing, and the cost of rearing sheep in the 
west is continually advancing. This condition will even- 
tually force the raising of more sheep in other parts of the 
country. 

The Shepherd. — Not every one can make a success 
of sheep husbandry. The profits from this industry depend 
in a great measure upon the man engaged in the work. 
The successful sheep man generally has well-defined qual- 
ities without which the handling of sheep would be un- 
profitable. No domesticated animal appreciates gentle- 
ness more than the sheep, and if the industry is to return 
profits the shepherd must be gentle and kind in the handling 
of his animals. 

Stabling for Sheep. — Quarters for sheep should be dry, 
clean, well ventilated, and not too warm. These animals 
are protected from inclement weather by heavy fleeces, 
and can withstand a great deal of cold, but let them become 
wet and serious troubles at once begin. Sheep barns 
should be placed upon high, dry ground so that drainage 
away from the building is assured. The quarters should be 
kept well bedded with clean straw. Pure air should be 
provided at all times, but great care should be taken to 
prevent drafts. Sheep contract colds easily, and large losses 
often occur from pneumonia when over-zealous amateurs try 
to provide sheep with fresh air by leaving barn doors open. 



254 



CARE OF SHEEP 



Feeding Racks. — Feed troughs and other receptacles 
used for feed should be kept clean. A six-inch board placed 
about a foot above the center of the trough will give the 
sheep a chance to eat, but will prevent them from getting 
their feet into the trough. 

Preparation of Feeds. — As a general rule ordinary feed 
stuffs do not require much preparation for sheep. Such 
grains as peas and beans are best fed ground, especially 

to young lambs and 
old sheep with poor 
teeth. For these ani- 
mals corn should be 
cracked. Barley may 
be improved by soak- 
ing, and roots should 
be sliced or pulped be- 
fore feeding. For 
healthy sheep whose teeth are sound, there need be little 
preparation of feed. To get the best results feeding must 
be done regularly. 

Water and Salt. — It is a good plan to have clean, pure, 
fresh water accessible to the sheep at all times. They will 
drink more water with dry feed than when green or suc- 
culent feeds are provided, and more will be drunk in sum- 
mer than in winter. Salt should be kept constantly be- 
fore them. 

Exercise. — Sheep should have plenty of exercise. In 
cold climates it is often difficult to provide this. They 
should be turned out in the open every fine day, but not 
exposed to raw winter winds, snowstorms, and rains. The 
thrifty shepherd never allows his sheep to remain out in 
heavy rainstorms, even in the summer time. 




— Trough used in feeding grain to sheep. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 255 

Succulent and Rough Feeds. — Sheep should be given 
some succulent feed. In the winter, this is best provided 
in the form of moderate amounts of corn silage or roots. 
Two pounds of rutabagas daily per animal is sufficient. 
If frozen materials are fed, serious sickness or even 
death may follow. Moldy silage may also lead to the 
same results. For roughage, clover and alfalfa hay cannot 
be surpassed. Cowpeas, or common field peas are also 
good ; and for fattening sheep, pea-vine silage is especially 
valuable. 

Concentrated Feeds for the Breeding Flock. — For the 
breeding flock, the best concentrated feeds are bran and 
oats, mixed in the proportion of 3 parts of oats to 2 parts 
of bran. This ration, fed about one half pound daily 
with alfalfa or clover hay, will keep the flock in good con- 
dition. No grain need be fed until the spring season ap- 
proaches. Extra feed and care at this time is well paid 
for in increased returns, and grain given to the ewes and 
to the lambs is generally economical. 

Early Feeding. — If the dam is well fed, the lamb de- 
rives the benefit. By the time the lambs are a month old 
they have learned to eat grain from their mother's feed 
trough. At this time it is well to provide a " creep," 
separating the pen of the mother from another pen provided 
with a trough for the lambs. In this way the lambs can be 
fed alone. For growth, a good mixture to be fed all through 
the summer in small amounts consists of 1 part wheat bran. 
2 parts oats, 2 parts corn meal, and 1 part oil meal. At 
about the age of five months the lambs should be taken away 
to a fresh pasture out of sight and hearing of their dams. 

Feeding for Fattening. — If lambs are to be fattened 
they may be fed a half pound daily ration made up of 



256 



CARE OF SHEEP 



cracked corn, peas, and wheat bran. The grain may be 
gradually increased up to one pound daily. When the time 
comes to yard them, they should be fed either alfalfa or 
clover hay for dry roughage, some succulent feed such as 
corn silage or roots, of which rutabagas are best, and a 
grain mixture of shelled corn or corn meal, and a small 
amount of linseed meal or cottonseed meal. Linseed cake 




Fig. 92. — Docking a lamb. 

and cottonseed cake broken into nut size gives better satis- 
faction with the lambs than if fed in the finely ground form. 
The grain ration may gradually be increased up to two 
pounds daily when the lambs are about ready for market. 

Docking and Trimming. — Lambs should be docked at 
about the age of two weeks. Docking is the removal of 
the tail. This insures cleanliness, and docked lambs sell 
better, to say nothing of their added comfort and better 
gains. 

The outside of a sheep's hoof grows faster than it wears 
off unless the sheep are kept on very rough ground. If not 



DIPPING SHEEP 



257 



trimmed, this outside shell turns under the hoof, collects 
dirt and filth and in time may lead to foot rot. The feet 
should be trimmed at least twice each year. 





Dipping jm0*^"* 7' <vv 

TaiLtj0p$^ Sloping Floor 



Fig. 93. — Cross section of dipping tank and pens. 

Sheep Ticks. — The sheep tick, a wingless fly, is about 
one fourth of an inch long and of reddish-brown color. 
The adult tick lays the eggs, which adhere to the wool 
fibers. These hatch in about four 
weeks. All sheep are more or less 
affected, but the long-wool breeds 
seem to harbor more ticks than the 
other classes of sheep. At time of 
shearing the ticks move to the 
lambs for protection. 

Sheep ticks cause the animals 
great annoyance. They suck the 
blood, dry up the wool, produce 
irritation, and cause emaciation, ^v^ 
Every sheep owner should dip his Fig. 94 . — a handy lift gate for a 
sheep annually, about a week or dipping tank. 

ten days after shearing time, in one of the standard sheep- 
dipping solutions. 




T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 



17 



258 CARE OF SHEEP 

EXERCISES 

1. Can mutton sheep be produced on pasture alone? Give 
reasons for your answer. 

2. Why do sheep protected by a heavy fleece need stabling? 

3. At what age should the lambs be separated from their 
dams to be fed alone ? 

4. Which need the greater amount of protein in the ration, 
lambs or pigs ? Why ? 

5. Why is exercise of so much importance in the management 
of all live stock ? 

HOME PROJECT 

With the consent of your parents take entire charge of the 
care and management of the home flock. 



CHAPTER XVII 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE 

While the hog has an omnivorous appetite and will eat 
refuse of all kinds, its habits are exceedingly clean. There 
is no other farm animal that appreciates more clean and 
healthful quarters, and that responds better to good care 
and wise feeding. 

Quarters. — While quarters for hogs need not be ex- 
pensive, they should provide an abundance of sunlight and 
fresh air. In cold climates, hog houses should be warmly 
constructed. The large central house should be so ar- 
ranged that it can be divided into small pens. If possible 
the doors of the pens should open into small lots or runways 
to give the animals an opportunity to get out for exer- 
cise. In connection with the hog house there should be a 
feed room, equipped with a stove or heater, where water 
can be heated and feeds warmed or cooked. 

The up-to-date hog plant has individual hog houses, or 
colony houses, as they are sometimes called. The breed- 
ing animals are usually kept in these colony houses all 
winter, where they have the advantage of plenty of exer- 
cise and good air. 

All hog houses should be clean, well bedded with straw, 
and the walls should be whitewashed and disinfected regu- 
larly. Feed troughs and other feed receptacles should be 
kept clean. 

259 



260 CARE OF SWINE 

Feeding the Brood Sow. — In connection with pasture, 
the brood sow should receive daily from two to four pounds 
of a mixed grain ration. This should be rich in protein 
and mineral matter, to which should be added some rough- 
age such as alfalfa or clover hay. These bulky feeds keep 
the digestive tract distended and in good condition. Grain 
mixtures may be made from corn, oats, bran, peas, and soy 
beans. If skim milk can be obtained it is well to feed five 
or six pounds daily. 

Feeding the Young Pigs. — At about the age of three 
weeks the pigs should be provided with feed in a small 
trough of their own. The feed may be the same as that 
given to the mother. They should have plenty of out- 
door exercise. Their quarters should be kept dry and 
clean. The pigs should be weaned at about the age of 
six weeks. 

By weaning time the young pigs will have learned to 
eat. A " creep " into a separate pen should be provided so 
that the young ones may slip into this pen, away from the 
mother, and eat corn, slop, and skim milk. They should 
be fed liberally, and if possible should have the run of a 
grass pasture where there is sufficient shade and running 
water. It is poor practice to have the small pigs feed with 
larger ones, or young pigs with older ones. Not more 
than fifty pigs of the same size should be herded together. 

Finishing the Lard Hog. — Hogs are easily fattened if 
liberally fed. In the corn belt of North America, where 
lard hogs are more extensively raised than in any other 
part of the world, corn forms the principal part of the' 
diet of the fattening hog. The number of pounds of pork 
annually produced depends within reasonable limits upon 
the number of bushels of corn raised. The states where 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING 261 

corn grows best are the states in which most of the pork 
is produced. 

Wheat middlings fed in a slop ration or tankage fed in 
the same way will be found a valuable adjunct to corn for 
pork production. Cottonseed meal should not be fed to 
hogs. In the later stages of feeding, linseed meal also 
softens the fat and should not be fed at that time. Bran 
is too bulky for hog feeding. 

Pasture, Soiling, and Preparation of Feeds. — Pasture 
is a help toward profitable hog fattening. Dry lot fat- 
tening is often expensive. In the case of fattening in dry 
lots it is a good thing to supply the animals with some 
succulent feed in the form of soiling crops, such as peas, 
beans, clover, or alfalfa. If grains like barley are soaked 
at least twelve hours before feeding, better results are ob- 
tained. As a rule little preparation of corn is necessary. 
The best way to feed corn is on the cob. During cold 
weather slop should be warmed for hogs, but no feeds ex- 
cept potatoes or pumpkins need be cooked for them. 

The Relation of Grain to Gain. — The general rule for 
the relation of feed to gain is that one should allow a bushel 
of corn for every ten pounds of pork produced. During 
the fattening period, the hogs should be watched, and 
as soon as they cease to make gains they should be sold, 
unless the market is poor. The feeder should study the 
market and strive to sell when prices are high. During 
winter feeding, hogs should have warm quarters, but even 
then more corn will be required to make a pound of gain 
than in summer feeding. 

Feeding for Bacon Production. — In feeding for the pro- 
duction of bacon, less corn is desired. The ration should 
consist of feeds relatively low in carbohydrate and fat 



262 



CARE OF SWINE 



material, in comparison with corn ; such as barley, oats, 
peas, soy beans, shorts, middlings, and skim milk. Sum- 
mer pasture is good to furnish green material and give 
time for the development of the animal, but too much green 
forage ought not be fed, as it tends to produce a soft car- 
cass. Hogs from one of the bacon breeds should be used 
for the production of bacon. 

Pasture for Pigs. — During recent years much atten- 
tion has been given to the production of pork on pasture 
with a self-feeder. This has proven to be a most economical 
method of pork production. The pigs are farrowed late 
enough in the spring so that they may be turned on pas- 




Fig. 95. — Alfalfa rack for hogs. 



ture about weaning time. Alfalfa and clover or common 
blue grass are very acceptable permanent pasture for pigs. 
Peas, oats and peas, rape, or other especially planted crop, 
are often preferred. Best results are obtained from pigs 
fed a small allowance of skim milk and having free access 
to a self-feeder stocked with corn or other mixed feeds. 

Hog Cholera. — Hog cholera is one of the worst dis- 
eases with which the swine producer has to contend. It is 
caused by virulent germs which live for a long time in bed- 



HOG CHOLERA 



263 



ding, straw piles, litter, rubbish, and mud holes. These 
are carried from place to place by streams, wagons, birds, 
and on the feet of men and animals. 

The disease appears in two forms, the acute, which takes 
away the victim in a few hours, and the chronic, which 
may last one or more weeks. 

Affected pigs are usually dumpish and listless, lying 
around huddled together. Their appetite varies, and 
their digestion is de- 
ranged. The skin is 
reddened and in- 
flamed around the 
ears, nose, and eyes, 
along the belly, and 
inside of the thighs. 
Violent diarrhoea is 
the characteristic 
symptom. 

To prevent the 
spread of the disease 
in infected areas, all 
hogs brought to the 
farm should be quar- 
antined for four 
weeks. Dogs and 
other migratory animals should be kept away, and care 
should be taken not to visit infested farms. Hogs should 
be pastured at a distance from highways, railways, and 
streams. Troughs should be disinfected daily and pens 
weekly with quicklime or some other good disinfectant, and 
all wallow holes should be filled. Litter should be burned, 
and old straw piles should not be left standing where pigs 




Fig. 96. — Kidneys from a cholera hog. On the sur- 
face of the kidney are small blood spots which give 
them a turkey-egg appearance. The white spot is a 
blood vessel. 



264 CARE OF SWINE 

may have access to them. If the disease is in the vicinity, 
pigs should be vaccinated against cholera by a duly quali- 
fied veterinarian. 

If the herd is attacked, all pens should be cleaned and 
thoroughly disinfected, the serum treatment given, all 
carcasses and litter burned, the hogs kept away from wal- 
low holes and other unsanitary places, and provided with 
well-lighted and well-ventilated sleeping quarters. 

EXERCISES 

1. What are the advantages of the colony hog houses? 

2. Why should the brood sow with a litter of pigs be given 
feeds rich in protein and mineral matter? How should her 
feed differ from that of the pigs after weaning ? 

3. What is the essential difference between feeds for bacon 
and for lard hogs ? 

4. Can hogs be fattened on pasture, rape, or any kind of 
green feed? Give reasons for your answer. 

5. Do bacon breeds ever become lard hogs? If so, under 
what conditions? 

HOME PROJECT 

Select and raise a pig to sufficient maturity for the market 
under the best conditions of feeding, care, and management. 
Keep an accurate record of cost and returns. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

GENERAL LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT 

Heredity and Variation. — " Like begets like." This 
tendency is known as heredity, and upon heredity are based 
all the possibilities of live stock improvement. Offspring 
are the result of all their ancestors, and while they resemble 
their parents, they are never exactly like their parents nor 
exactly like each other. It is upon variation that animal 
improvement depends. Offspring vary slightly from their 
parents in certain marked characteristics. The breeder 
selects the animals that have the qualities he desires to 
perpetuate, and by mating them he produces other ani- 
mals with characteristics that conform to his ideal. 

Selection. — Selection is of two kinds : natural selec- 
tion or nature's selection of animals best fitted to certain 
natural conditions, and methodical selection, or that prac- 
ticed by the breeder. Natural selection is sometimes 
called the " survival of the fittest," and while the animal 
may be the fittest animal for nature's conditions it may 
not be the best animal under economic conditions set up 
by man. So the breeder selects his animals methodically, 
and establishes artificial conditions under which the ani- 
mals may best thrive. 

Atavism. — Atavism is reversion to the original type. 
Oftentimes animals are born resembling very remote an- 
cestors. Red calves are frequently born to black Aber- 

265 



266 LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT 

deen Angus parents because years ago there were many 
red Angus cattle. This reversion is atavism. 

Mutants or Sports. — Frequently animals are born that 
are direct deviations from their ancestors such as a polled 
animal from horned ancestors. These animals are called 
" mutants " or " sports," and many breeds of animals 
have been developed from these " sports." A good ex- 
ample of this is seen in the case of the Double Standard 
Polled Durham cattle. 

Crossbreeding. — Crossbreeding is the mating of animals 
of the same species, but of different breeds. A calf pro- 
duced by mating a pure-bred Shorthorn with a pure-bred 
Hereford would be known as a Shorthorn-Hereford cross- 
bred calf. Introducing the blood of a different breed for 
only one generation is known as an " outcross." The 
crossing of different breeds tends to break up the charac- 
ters by which any particular breed is known, and is 
unsatisfactory after the first cross. 

Hybrids. — The mating of animals from two different 
species produces the hybrid. The mule is the commonest 
and best-known hybrid among farm animals. Hybrids 
are generally nonbreeders, but cases are on record where 
they have reproduced. 

Inbreeding. — Inbreeding is the mating of closely re- 
lated animals. It is resorted to by breeders in develop- 
ing new breeds of animals, or in the fixing of certain 
characters. 

Line Breeding. — Line breeding is allied to inbreeding, 
except that the animals mated are not so closely related. 
It generally applies to breeding of animals of the same 
family that are more remotely related than in the case of 
inbreeding. 



BREEDING 



267 



The Pure-bred Sire. — The use of the " pure-bred sire " 
is one of the shortest cuts to improving the live stock of 
any community. The value of the pure-bred sire in im- 
proving common stock is well shown by the following 
tabulation from Davenport's " Principles of Breeding." 

Table Showing Appearance of Pure Blood and Disappearance of 
Impure by Use of Pure-bred Sire 









Offspring 


Generation 


Sire 
% Puritv 


Dam 
% Purity 














% Purity 


% Impurity 


1 


100 





50 


50 


2 


100 


SO 


75 


25 


3 


100 


75 


87* 


12! 


4 


100 


87^ 


93l 


6| 


5 


100 


93? 


96! 


3i 


6 


100 


96| 


9% 


*A 



This table means that if grade and pure-bred animals 
of the same breed are mated, consistent improvement is 
made by the infusion of pure blood. 

After six generations there is less than 2 per cent of 
impure blood in the offspring. This offspring, even though 
possessing many of the characters of the pure breed, is 
not a pure-bred and cannot be registered in our American 
Herd Books. There is no possible way to " grade up ' : 
common stock to become absolutely pure bred. 

Breed Associations. — Every breed of live stock has its 
breed association made up of the men who direct the 
improvement of the breed. The association agrees upon 
what the type of the animal should be and points out the 
deficiencies for correction and the good points which the 
breed possesses. The active associations offer prizes at 



268 LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT 

the leading shows for the best animals of the breed. They 
also lay down rules for the registration of animals. 

At some of the principal shows and exhibitions, money, 
set aside by the associations, is used for futurity prizes. 
Animals to compete for futurity prizes must be nominated 
some time in advance of the show. This encourages the 
breeder to strive to get the best breeding stock and to 
take the best possible care of the progeny. 

Registers of merit or advanced registers are instituted 
by the dairy cattle breed associations. The purpose of 
these associations is to encourage high production of milk 
and butter fat and to keep track of the best producers, so 
that prospective purchasers may select animals from good 
ancestors, and breeders may breed more intelligently and 
effectively. 

Tests for advanced registration are of two kinds : official 
and semi-official. The official test lasts for seven days. 
In this test the tester visits the farm, sees that the cow is 
milked out dry, sees the milking before the test begins, and 
then stays on the farm during the entire test, watches every 
milking, weighs the milk, and makes a butter-fat test. 
The semi-official test covers one year, or as long as the 
lactation period of the cow lasts. A representative of a 
state agricultural college comes to the farm once every 
month, on days unannounced to the owner, and remains 
for two days. All feed as well as the milk is weighed and 
recorded. The butter-fat content of the milk is also 
found. The weighing of the milk on the other days of the 
month, and the two days' test of the quality of the milk, is 
taken as the record for the month. 

The table on the opposite page sets forth the Advanced 
Register requirements of the different dairy breeds. 



ADVANCED REGISTER TABLE 



269 



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270 



LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT 



The Holstein Association admits to advanced registry 
by official test on the seven-day record of the cow. If 
the cow qualifies in the seven-day test, she may be run 
for the year, and the year's record will be published. The 
Jersey Association admits cows to the advanced register 
by either official seven-day test, or by the yearly semi- 
official test. The Ayrshire and the Brown Swiss Associa- 
tions admit cows to advanced register by the yearly semi- 
official test only, but they may be admitted on either 
their milk or their butter-fat production. The Guernsey 
Cattle Club admits cows to advanced registry by semi- 
official test only, and on the year's butter-fat record only. 

Advanced registry systems have served to stimulate 
competition among different breeds of cattle, and as a re- 
sult some very remarkable records have been made. Not 
many years ago the idea that a cow could produce more 
than 1000 pounds of butter in 12 months seemed pre- 






Fig. 97. — Guernsey cow. 



DAIRY COW RECORDS 



271 



posterous. Now there are many cows on record that 
have made over 1000 pounds of butter. Some of the 
cows that have made good records are listed in the follow- 
ing table. 

Some World's Record Cows, January i, 19 19 



Name of Cow 


Breed 


Length of 
Record 


Pounds of 
Milk 


% Test 


Pounds of 
Fat 


Duchess Skylark 




Days 








Orensby 


Holstein 


365 


27,761.70 


4-34 


1205.09 


Finderne Holinen 












Fayne . . . 


Holstein 


365 


24,612.8 


4-53 


1 1 16.05 


K. P. Pontiac 


Holstein 










Lass, 106812 . 


5-5-20 l 


7 


585.5 


6.03 


35-32 


Creamelle Vale, 


Holstein 










73357 • • • 


7-9-0 


365 


29,591.0 


3.12 


924.68 


Sophie's Agnes . 


Jersey 


365 


16,212.0 


6.12 


1000.87 


Murne Cowan 


Guernsey 




24,008.0 




1098.18 


May Rilma, 22761 


Guernsey 
6-4-16 


365 


19,673.0 


5-45 


1073.41 


College Bravura 


Brown Swiss 










2d, 2577 . . 


Full age 


365 


19,460.6 


4.10 


798.16 


Lily of 












Willowmowe . 


Ayrshire 


365 


22,596.0 


4-23 


955-56 


Pear 


Red Poll 




13,160.6 




606.8 


Rose of Glenside 


Shorthorn 


365 


18,075.2 




624.76 



' Age at which record was made. 

N'ote : To find the butter production add \ to the amount of butter fat. 

Test Associations. — A great deal of improvement in 
dairy cattle is being made throughout the country by the 
establishment of " Test Associations." In these associa- 
tions the dairymen of a community band together, and 
employ a man to go from place to place and weigh and 
test the milk at each farm once a month. The feed is also 
weighed. The farmer weighs the milk the rest of the 
month, and the monthly test is taken as the average for 



272 LIVE STOCK IMPROVEMENT 

the entire month. From the data thus obtained the 
farmer is able to judge the profitable and unprofitable 
cows in his herd. This makes it possible for him to im- 
prove his herd systematically. It is not necessary that 
the cows be pure-bred or that they belong to any particular 
breed of cattle. The work is educational, and the re- 
sults obtained by the different associations have done 
much to improve dairying. 

Subsidizing Sires. — Great improvement in the horse 
industry has been made in France and Belgium especially 
by subsidizing the good sires. If a stallion is especially 
good, the government pays the owner a bonus so that it 
will be to his interest to keep the animal in the country, 
otherwise the best horses would be exported. By this 
arrangement the standard of the horses of those countries 
is kept high. A similar plan is worked out in Ireland. 
The government owns good sires and places them in cer- 
tain communities. At the Agricultural College at Glas- 
nevin fine herds of cattle and hogs are maintained. -The 
young sires produced here are sold to the good breeders 
at a price that is much less than the real commercial value 
of the animal. The breeder must agree to return the animal 
when its period of usefulness on that farm is over. These 
methods are working incalculable good in Great Britain 
and other European countries. 

Other plans for improving live stock are in use in this 
country. Breeders' associations in certain localities have 
done much good. Associated effort makes it possible for 
the small breeder to get his stock before the public more 
effectively than he can alone. Prospective purchasers 
would rather go into a community to purchase than to go 
to any one breeder, because if there are several breeders 



EXERCISES 273 

in the same community, a great deal of time and money 
that would be used for traveling is saved. 

On the islands of Guernsey and Jersey, importation of 
live animals, except for immediate slaughter, has been 
prohibited for many years. Prizes for the best stock 
are awarded annually by the local breeders' associations. 
The result is that their cattle have been kept pure in 
breeding and the purchaser is sure of it. The possibility 
of introducing disease has also been eliminated. 

Stallion Enrollment. — One of the most effective methods 
of live stock improvement in this country is the enrollment 
of stallions, which was established in Wisconsin some 
years ago and has since been adopted by many progressive 
states in the Union. This has the effect of eliminating 
the unsound and unfit, so that only the best types are 
allowed to perpetuate their kind. 

EXERCISES 

1. Do you practice line breeding or crossbreeding on the 
home farm ? 

2. Do you keep herd records of any sort? 

3. Has the trotting horse been improved by the use of records ? 
In what way? 

4. Do you know of any one who is now making use of records 
to secure live stock improvement? 

5. Is crossbreeding successful with any class of animals? 

HOME PROJECT 

Keep milk, butter fat, and feed records of the animals in the 
home dairy herd, with a view to selecting those best suited for 
breeding purposes. 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. 1 8 



CHAPTER XIX 

FARM POULTRY 

The hen on the farm may be characterized as the " penny- 
saver." Each individual hen accomplishes little, but the 
aggregate saving of a flock of hens is a matter of considerable 
importance. No other animal is more economical in the 
consumption and assimilation of food, or can utilize waste 
products to better advantage. 

The Farm Flock Should Be of Pure Breeds. —As the 
pure-bred animal, which has been especially selected and 
raised for some definite end, will excel a mongrel or native 
animal in the special kind of performance for which it is 
bred, so a pure-bred Leghorn, Plymouth Rock, or Rhode 
Island Red hen will lay more eggs than a mongrel or scrub 
hen, because she has been specially bred for this purpose. 

But the desirability of raising pure-bred poultry does 
not end with the gain in number of eggs. Pure-bred market 
fowls are uniform in appearance, have the same color of 
skin and legs, the same shape of breast and weigh about 
the same number of pounds each ; consequently the car- 
casses of pure-bred fowls sell for more on the market. 

Pure-bred fowls utilize their feed to better advantage ; for 
the more highly bred an animal is the less food it requires 
to produce a given product. It has often been stated that 
pure-bred hens do not require any more to keep them than 
common or scrub stock. Besides, they have the power 

274 



CARE OF THE FLOCK 



275 




Fig. 98. — White Plymouth Rocks. 



of turning their feed into a fancy product at a greater 
profit to the poultry breeder. 

Buyers of spring chickens readily pay more for a coop of 
uniform broilers than they will for a coop containing the 
same number of nondescript fowls of various colors and 
shapes, because pure-bred chickens fatten more quickly and 
more uniformly and sell for a higher price. 

Care of the Flock. The farm flock should be comfortably 
housed and well fed. The hens should be confined within 
definite bounds so that, while they are not crowded and 
hampered, yet they w T ill not have an opportunity to run 
about the farm, wasting energy, losing eggs, and being 
a general nuisance. While exercise is necessary to the best 
health of the poultry, it should be intelligently restricted. 
During the breeding season, however, it is well to let the 
breeders have plenty of exercise. 

Two Houses Desirable. — On the average farm the 
pullets are housed with the old hens. When the young 
pullets are put in the same house the old hens usually annoy 



276 



FARM POULTRY 



and frighten them so that they cease growing and developing 
eggs. For this reason it is desirable to have either two 
poultry houses or one house so divided that the old hens 
may be kept in one compartment and the pullets in the 
other. 

Poultry House. — The farm poultry house must be dry 
at all times, with a tight roof which keeps out rains and 




Fig. 99. — Shed type of poultry house. 

melting snows, and walls proof against driving storms. The 
floor must be sufficiently high above the natural surface of 
the ground to prevent water from running over' it. In 
most locations the floor should be raised so that it is from 
six inches to a foot above the natural level of the ground. 

Air and Light Necessary. — The poultry house should 
have plenty of light, and should furnish an abundance of 
fresh air without draft. It should be sufficiently warm so 
that the hens are not subjected to sudden and extreme 
changes of temperature, and so arranged that it can be 
easily and perfectly cleaned. 



TYPES OF HOUSES 



277 




Two Types of Houses. — There are two general types of 
houses ; namely, the colony house or disconnected unit, 
and the continuous, or connected type. The latter is really 
a multiplication of colony houses set side by side under a 
single roof. 

The Colony House. — It is claimed that the hens do 
better in small flocks than in large groups. Moreover, small 
houses holding from twenty-five to fifty hens each can 
be scattered about 
the farm and moved 
from field to field as 
the crops are rotated. 
This type of house is 
in special favor in 
places where the land 
is too rough for 
economically build- 
ing long continuous 
houses. It is by all 
odds the best type for 
the general farmer. 

Amount of Floor 
Space per Hen. — 
From three to four 
square feet of floor 
space per hen is suffi- 
cient. The smaller the house the greater should be the allow- 
ance per hen, for the reason that the total area over which 
one hen can roam is very much greater in a large house. 

Amount of Yard Space per Hen. — Ten hens can very 
easily be kept in a yard sixteen feet square, if there is an- 
other vard of the same size in which thev can be alternated 



Fig. 100. — Outside of a poultry house in winter. 




Fig. 101. — Inside of poultry house shown in Fig. 100. 



278 FARM POULTRY 

occasionally, and some green crop grown thereon for the 
purpose of renovating the soil. The same ten hens can be 
confined in a space ten feet square if the soil be spaded and 
renovated frequently. It is better to err on the side of too 
much space than too little. A safe rule is to make the yard 
so large that the hens will never kill the grass on it, and then 
have another yard of the same size into which they can be 
turned on alternate months. 

Renewing the Farm Flock. — It is no easy task to set a 
hen properly, and many eggs are spoiled annually because 
people are careless or ignorant in this respect. 

First of all, a cozy nest, neither too large nor too small, 
should be provided. If too large, the eggs will be scattered ; 
if too small, the hen is likely to break the eggs in getting on 
and off the nest. A box approximately fifteen inches square 
by eight inches deep is an acceptable size. Earth may first 
be placed in it, then chaff or cut hay on top of this. The nest 
should be hollow so that the eggs will not roll around. A 
quiet hen should be selected, not too large, and placed on 
a setting of china eggs for a few days to get her accustomed 
to the nest. 

A fussy, flighty hen is a nuisance and ought never be used. 
If the hen breaks an egg and smears the others, they must 
be taken out and washed with warm water, for smeared eggs 
will not hatch. Too many eggs should not be placed in one 
nest. A far greater percentage of chicks will hatch if a 
setting of eggs is put under two hens than if all are put 
under one hen. In cold weather nine eggs is sufficient. 
The chicks may be placed with one hen after they are 
hatched. 

The nest box should be so arranged that it can be closed 
except when the hen is to be taken off for feeding and 



CARE OF HEN AND CHICKS 279 

watering. Closing the nest box prevents other hens from 
disturbing the sitter or rats from stealing the eggs. 

Care of the Sitting Hens. — Best results are obtained 
when the sitting hens are fed only corn in addition to water 
and grit. Many poultry men provide a dust bath in the 
room so that the hen can dust when she is off for feeding, 
but this purpose can better be accomplished by thoroughly 
dusting the hen with insect powder before setting her and 
once or twice during the period of incubation. 

Care of Young Chicks. — When the chicks are hatched 
it is best to raise them artificially, after the third or fourth 
day. If it is desired to use the hen as a brooder, she should 
be confined in a slatted coop so that the chicks can wander 
about and return to the hen for warmth and at night. 
Chicks do not do so well if allowed to run with the hen. The 
general care and feeding of the chicks hatched with hens 
should be the same as for brooder chicks, described later. 

Beginners' Mistakes. — It is common for beginners to 
expect too many chicks from a setting of eggs. A hatch of 
50 per cent of the eggs is good and 75 per cent is very good 
indeed. 

A point that beginners do not always understand is that 




Fig. 102. — Old-fashioned coop that has many advantages. 



280 FARM POULTRY 

the down on chicks is not always the color of their parents. 
Chicks from eggs of the black breeds, such as Black Cochins 
and Black Langshans, often hatch out white, but are none 
the less pure for all that, and will grow up into perfectly 
black fowls. Chicks from white breeds often hatch out dark, 
but they become perfectly white after they shed their first 
feathers. 

EXERCISES 

i. Why is poultry an economical farm product? 

2. Why is it desirable to separate young pullets from old 
hens? 

3. Give five reasons for raising pure breeds of farm poultry. 

4. Why should hens be comfortably housed, and well fed ? 

5. What is the reason for providing for exercise in poultry 
production ? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. What provision is made for poultry and egg production 
on your home farm ? How may these conditions be improved ? 
Outline a plan and put it into operation. 

2. If pullets are yarded with old hens at home, try separat- 
ing them if possible and note the effect on egg production. 
Keep accurate records. 



CHAPTER XX 

INCUBATION AND BROODING 

Artificial and Natural Incubation Compared. — Hens 
are used to incubate only on the most limited scale. In 
fact, artificial incubation has been so improved and per- 
fected in its methods that, all things considered, the work 
can really be done more satisfactorily by first-class ma- 
chines. 

Another advantage of artificial incubation is that by 
means of it one can produce greater numbers of chickens 
than would be possible if it were necessary to depend en- 
tirely upon hens for incubation. Then, too, by hatching 
with a machine one controls conditions ; there is no hen to 
leave the nest at night ; none of the eggs become broken 
and smeared over the remaining ones ; the nest does not 
become soiled. In every way artificial methods admit of 
better sanitary measures, so that the chances for producing 
stronger, healthier chicks are very much greater. The in- 
cubator can be thoroughly disinfected at the beginning of 
the hatch, and it stays so until the chicks have popped from 
the shells. Incubator chicks are free from lice, and can be 
kept so until they are large enough to run at large with 
other poultry, when the lice will do little harm. 

It is a great satisfaction to care for a flock of artificially 
hatched chickens, because the brood is so much larger. 
With the use of the proper appliances 500 artificially 

281 



282 INCUBATION AND BROODING 

hatched chicks can be cared for just as easily as five 
broods of hen-hatched chicks. 

When incubators are used the directions furnished with 
the machine for its operation should be closely followed. 

Selecting Eggs for Incubation. — Although eggs that 
are not uniform in size, shape, or thickness of shell ap- 
parently hatch as well as more nearly perfect eggs, pro- 
vided all of a kind are put into the same machine, it is in- 
advisable to use them. The unsafe feature of promiscuous 
selection lies in the fact that the eggs of poor shape and 
shell have been laid by hens with whom the char- 
acteristic of producing eggs of this nature is dominant ; and 
so the chicks hatched from these eggs show a tendency to 
lay eggs of poor shape. Then, too, eggs of different sizes 
and different thicknesses of shell do not respond to the 
heat of incubation so evenly as do eggs that are more nearly 
uniform in size and shell. 

It is advisable but not necessary to test out infertile 
eggs after the sixth or eighth day. It is advisable because 
removing them obviates crowding at hatching time. 

Effect of Chilling on Incubation. — Eggs should not be 
used for incubation after a sudden drop in temperature. 
Where thousands of eggs have been incubated, it has been 
observed that those collected on the day of a sudden 
change in temperature, or a day or so afterward, do not 
hatch so well, even when they have not been chilled, as 
those collected during the period when the temperature 
was more nearly uniform, regardless of the degree of cold- 
ness. It is inadvisable to hold eggs which are to be incu- 
bated, for any length of time. The only time when it is 
advisable is when the flock is extremely small and the 
incubating facilities are limited. 



CLEANLINESS AND TEMPERATURE 283 

Effect of Age on Incubation. — It has been stated that 
eggs should not be held for any great length of time. How- 
ever, if it is found necessary to hold the eggs from a week 
to ten days the eggs should be kept in a dry, cool place, 
free from excessive air circulation. The best results will be 
obtained if the temperature of the storage room does not 
fluctuate beyond the extremes of 50 and 6o° Fahrenheit. 

Effect of Cleanliness on Incubation. — No egg should be 
used for incubation which was excessively soiled in the 
nest ; in fact best results are obtained where no cleaning 
has been required. Where eggs are incubated later than 
the first of April, in middle and northern latitudes they 
should be disinfected with a weak solution of crude car- 
bolic acid. Farther south, disinfection should be practiced 
earlier in the year. The trays and all removable parts of 
the incubator should be thoroughly scrubbed with a three 
per cent solution of the above disinfectant, using a stiff 
vegetable brush, and every portion of the interior thor- 
oughly sprayed with the same solution. Every possible 
means should be used to make the incubator aseptic 
before the eggs are placed in it. The eggs should be 
put in the machine while it is still surcharged with this 
antiseptic vapor. Small pans containing a weaker solution 
of the above disinfectant may be placed under each tray of 
eggs, so that throughout the entire hatch the eggs are 
kept in as nearly an aseptic atmosphere as is possible. 

Effect of Temperature on Incubation. — When the tem- 
perature can be kept uniform, the resulting hatches are 
more nearly uniform and the chicks stronger than when 
a fluctuating temperature is maintained throughout the 
hatch. The proper hatching temperature is 102 to 103 
Fahrenheit. 



284 INCUBATION AND BROODING 

Testing the Thermometer. — In starting the hatch, no 
thermometer, however good the make or however reliable 
its past history may be, should be used without first test- 
ing it by comparison with a standardized thermometer. 
It has been found best to recalibrate or test the ther- 
mometer at the beginning of each season, as the readings 
change from year to year. This is due to the " seasoning" 
of the glass from which the thermometer is made. 

To Test and Recalibrate an Incubator Thermometer. — 
Provide a large shallow basin of water heated to no°, 
place a standardized thermometer and one to be tested 
side by side in the water with the mercury bulbs about 
one inch below the surface ; compare the two until water 
has cooled to 96 , making a note of the comparative read- 
ing on the two thermometers. Then mark the correction, 
if any, on the incubator thermometer. 

Effect of Moisture on Incubation. — Close watch needs 
be kept on the relative humidity of air in the machine. 
Best results are obtained when the relative humidity is 
not less than 50 per cent. With most machines the ad- 
dition of moisture is necessary. The surest and safest 
way to maintain humidity is by the use of the wet sand 
tray. The water used for moistening the sand should 
contain about one per cent of some volatile disinfectant. 
In order to prevent the lowering of temperature within 
the incubator, this water should be brought to 102 Fah- 
renheit before being added to the trays. 

What Constitutes a Good Hatch. — The real test of the 
hatch is not the fertility but the number of chicks resulting 
from the total number of eggs incubated. The total num- 
ber of chicks should not mean the total number that suc- 
ceeded in freeing themselves from the shells without help, 



BROODING CHICKS 285 

but should include only such chicks as dry off nicely, are 
undeformed, bright, and have " shape." It is a mistake to 
attempt to raise all of the chicks that hatch. The test of 
a hatch is the number of perfect chicks taken to the brooder 
which require no special care over and above what is 
given to the average of the flock to make them thrive and 
grow. A poor hatch may be due to poor eggs, weakness 
of the breeding stock, lack of proper care of the eggs be- 
fore placing them in the incubator, or bad management of 
the machine. 

Brooding Young Chicks. — The term brooding is meant 
to include the warming, feeding, care, hygiene, and com- 
fort of young chicks. Eternal vigilance and regularity are 
the price of success in this work. There should be stated 
periods for cleaning and disinfecting, and then one's best 
judgment should be used to detect any additional need. 

Before a chick is hatched, one should decide what to 
feed ; at what hours to feed ; how often to clean ; how 
frequently to disinfect ; with what to disinfect ; how soon 
to feed the chicks ; and at what temperature to operate 
the brooder. Then after once having settled on this rou- 
tine of procedure, making use of the best information and 
observation in formulating it, follow it out intelligently, 
thoroughly, and persistently. 

Artificial Brooding Preferred. — Chicks should be 
brooded artificially wherever it is possible, for by so doing 
all conditions can be kept under control ; more chicks 
can be handled by one person, and sturdier, more rapid 
growth can be obtained. If the brooder is cleaned and 
disinfected before incubator chicks are placed in it, all 
possibility of their becoming lousy while of a tender age is 
eliminated. 



286 INCUBATION AND BROODING 

The brooder should be thoroughly heated and dried out 
several days before the first chicks are placed in it. Then 
a slight sprinkling of sand should be spread over the floors 
to facilitate cleaning and to supply the chicks with some 
form of grit. A constant supply of clean, cool water, regu- 
lar heat, and fresh air should be maintained. The tem- 
perature under the hover should always be higher than is 
required to keep chicks comfortable, so that at any time 
they may go under the hover and be warmed quickly with- 
out crowding. During the first three weeks of the chick's 
life the hover room and feed room of the brooder should be 
scraped, scrubbed, and cleaned frequently. A 5 per cent 
solution of a strong disinfectant is used for this purpose. 
Great care should be exercised in order that the chicks may 
receive their food free of contamination from the droppings 
or floor litter. 

Sanitary Precautions Necessary. — On the most success- 
ful poultry plants strict sanitary measures are observed 
throughout the period of brooding, so that up to the time 
the chicks are taken to the open range or, if brooding is done 
with hens, up to the weaning time, there is no chance for 
disease to creep in. The brooders are arranged so that 
each compartment can be quickly and easily cleaned and 
disinfected. Whenever a dead chick is found, all the litter 
should be removed and the brooder cleaned and disin- 
fected. 

Feeding Brooder Chicks. — In feeding, an effort should 
be made to attain the happy mean between the two ex- 
tremes of underfeeding and overfeeding. As a rule more 
chicks are killed by overfeeding than by underfeeding, and 
the overfeeding in most cases starts by feeding too soon, 
while underfeeding results in small, weak chicks. Forty 



METHODS OF FEEDING 287 

hours after the chick has dried in the incubator is soon 
enough to begin feeding it, and it is safer not to feed it until 
it is seventy- two hours old than to feed it when it is only 
twenty-four hours from the shell. It is important that 
artificially hatched chicks should be transferred from 
hatcher to brooder in the evening, after dusk, so that they 
will stay under the hover. After they have nestled under 
the warm hover for a night they learn the purpose of it, 
and will instinctively return to it at all hours when they 
require warmth. 

There are almost as many good methods of feeding chicks 
as there are good poultrymen, so that it is only necessary 
to give the following simple and typical method which 
exemplifies the principles involved. 

The first feed consists of a mixture composed of eggs 
which have been boiled hard and thoroughly ground, 
shells and all, with bran and pinhead oatmeal. The pro- 
portion of eggs to bran and meal should be such that when 
rubbed together the moisture of the Qgg will be taken up by 
the other ingredients. When feeding is commenced forty 
to forty-eight hours after hatching, the chicks should have 
only as much of this mixture as they will eat up quickly 
and greedily in ten minutes, five times daily. Care should 
be taken to see that each chick is taught to eat. It is very 
essential that the chicks have plenty of grit and water for 
the first few days. It is also well to mix a small amount 
of charcoal with the egg and bran. After the first or second 
day, when it is apparent that all of the chicks have learned 
to eat, a grain chick feed should be given them at two of 
the feeding periods the first day, and the egg mixture 
diminished, until at the end of the first week they are re- 
ceiving only one feeding of the egg mixture, daily at noon. 



288 



INCUBATION AND BROODING 




Fig. 103. — Self-feeder for chicks. 



A good grain feed is 
made by mixing 
equal parts of cracked 
wheat, pinhead oat- 
meal, and finely 
cracked corn. 

Beginning the third 
week, the noon feed- 
ing of the egg mixture 
is changed to a mash 
mixture made of ten pounds of bran, eight pounds of corn 
meal, eight pounds of middlings, two pounds of alfalfa meal, 
and three pounds of good clean meat scrap. Wheat bran 
with 10 per cent of meat scrap may be substituted for this 
mixture. When this mash feed is first given it should be 
slightly moistened with warm water or skim milk, gradually 
reducing the amount of moisture until the chicks have 
learned to eat the meal mixture dry. It can then be left 
before them. If skim milk can be had for mixing the mash, 
the meat may be omitted. As soon as the chicks have 
learned to eat the dry mash, the milk may be given to 
them in a drinking vessel. 




Fig. 104. — A mash hopper. 



BROODER HOUSE 289 

After the third week the grain food is reduced to three 
times a day, and coarser grains are added to it until at the 
end of the fifth week they are receiving about equal parts 
of chick feed and the whole grain, such as whole wheat, 
kafrir corn, and small cracked corn. The amount of fine 
grain or chick feed is then reduced until they are receiving 
all coarse grains. 

The chicks should be allowed to stay in the brooder house 
until they are thoroughly feathered and the sexes sepa- 
rated. In this way every possibility of their becoming 
chilled while of tender age is avoided. By having the in- 
door runs roomy and by supplying fresh untrampled green 
feed in the form of lawn or rye clippings, sturdier and more 
rapid growth is obtained, and the mortality is also much 
less than if the chicks are allowed to run where they choose 
and are compelled to search for a part of their food. 

A Good Brooder House. — A good type of brooder 
house is one built 24 feet wide. It has a sunken passage 
4 feet wide throughout its entire length. It is heated 
with two hot-water brooding systems. The hover rooms 
are 3 feet square and open into runways 3 by 7 feet. 

All floors are of concrete. All screens, doors, and parti- 
tions have removable frames, which are interchangeable, so 
that any one set of frames can be used for any of the brood- 
ers throughout the house. 

The watering is done in galvanized iron troughs, located 
outside the hover rooms and placed in such a way that the 
chicks drink through openings in the back wall. By this 
arrangement the water is kept pure and clean. 

Near the center of the building is a kitchenette in which 
the food is prepared for the chicks during the first few 
weeks of their lives. 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 19 



290 INCUBATION AND BROODING 

No other material is so good and economical for a 
brooder house floor as concrete. It is rat proof, draft 
proof, and permits of thorough and easy cleaning. 

The Small Flock Best. — Whether chicks are raised on 
a large or a small scale it is almost imperative that they be 
started in small flocks if one expects to raise a high per- 
centage of them. The reason for this is that the little 
chicks do not know how to eat wisely, and must be taught. 
When they are placed in large flocks some of them are sure 
to be neglected or overlooked, and die as a result, after the 
third or fourth day. If they are started in small flocks 
each individual's chances for proper attention increase in 
direct proportion to the decrease in the size of the flock. 

For the first week the chicks should be placed in flocks 
of from fifteen to twenty-five ; and at the first few feeding 
periods the attendant should see that each separate chick 
has tasted its food and submerged its beak in the water, 
even if they have to be picked up one at a time and fed 
and watered by hand. 

This teaching period may be shortened and facilitated 
by introducing one or two older chickens, free from lice 
and disease, into each flock. After the chicks are six or 
seven days old several shovelfuls of moist earth or muck 
are thrown into the corner of the runs for them to pick 
over. It is found that they will eat a great deal of this, 
as it apparently fulfills some whim of appetite or body need 
which cannot be supplied in the feed, especially where 
the chicks are closely confined to yards. 

At the end of two or three weeks, and after they have 
learned to take care of themselves, the number in a flock 
may be increased. 

Many beginners have difficulty in raising late-hatched 



CHICKS ON THE RANGE 291 

chicks, a not uncommon happening even with experienced 
poultrymen. This condition is explained by the fact 
that in order to raise chickens successfully the number 
which is placed in a flock must be diminished as the season 
grows later, because in any climate where the nights are 
markedly colder than the days, it matters not what system 
of brooding is used, the chickens crowd in the brooders and 
trample each other to death. 

Range Raised Chicks. — It has been said that constitu- 
tional vigor is nature's stamp of approval upon man's ef- 
fort at animal breeding and improvement. There is no 
surer way to foster this desirable character than by develop- 
ing the fully feathered chicks on free range after they 
leave the brooder. 

The excellent results obtained from range raised chicks 
illustrate the desirability of putting into the young animal 
solid bone and sturdy muscle that can come only from un- 
hampered, spontaneous, and instinctive exercise, the exer- 
cise of the young animal at play. At ten or twelve weeks 
the sexes should be separated and the females taken to the 
range, where they are given liberty to run over fields of 
growing crops, or under the shade of wood pastures. The 
cockerels should be carefully inspected for individuals that 
give promise of developing into superior breeders, and these 
should be either sold at once or taken to a separate range. 
The remaining ones should be fattened and sold as broilers. 

On the range the chicks should be placed in flocks of one 
hundred to two hundred and fifty for each range house. 
They should be allowed to run in small temporary yards 
for a few days until they learn to go in and out of the house. 
After this they may range at will, the members of each flock 
returning at night to their respective houses. 



292 INCUBATION AND BROODING 

EXERCISES 

i. Why select eggs of uniform size, shape, and shell for 
hatching purposes? 

2. Why are white-shelled eggs more easily affected by heat 
than brown-shelled eggs ? 

3. Why should soiled eggs be rejected for incubation? 

4. Why should eggs for incubation not be held for several 
days, particularly in warm weather? 

5. What is the purpose of disinfection in brooding chicks? 

6. Why is it important to keep the air in an incubator moist ? 

7. Why does sprinkling the eggs in the incubator cool them? 

8. Give some good methods of disinfection. 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. What method of incubation is used at your home, — 
natural or artificial? Keep count of all eggs set by natural 
method, the total number of chicks hatched, and calculate the 
percentage of hatched eggs. 

2. Get permission to take charge of the incubator and pro- 
duce a hatch of chicks, following directions as closely as pos- 
sible, and calculate the percentage of eggs hatched. 

3. Get permission to take full charge of all eggs set and 
hatched by the natural method at home, if the incubator is not 
used. Calculate results. 

4. Feed young chicks for broilers, and by records ascertain 
actual cost of production. 



CHAPTER XXI 

FEEDING, CARE, AND MANAGEMENT OF 
LAYING HENS 

When to Feed. — For heaviest production mature stock 
should be fed at least three times daily throughout the 
year, and during certain seasons may be fed five times a 
day. The first feed given in the morning, regardless of 
season, is generally a grain mixture, scattered on the floor 
in deep straw litter. This first feeding should take place 
at seven o'clock in the morning, or earlier according to 
season, but always at the same hour, and the amount 




Fig. 105. — There should be plenty of litter on the floor. 
293 



2Q4 CARE OF LAYING HENS 

of grain should be so regulated that the fowls will clean it 
up in two or three hours. 

How to Feed. — In the spring and summer time, when it 
is possible for the hens to get green feed in the yards, no 
other feeding is necessary before noon except filling troughs 
with skim milk, or buttermilk if it can be had. If, however, 
there has been a long drought and the vegetation in the 
yards is withered and parched, green alfalfa or alfalfa hay, 
cut in short lengths and soaked in water long enough to 
swell and become succulent, may be placed in the troughs 
at about ten o'clock in the morning. 

At noon more grain is scattered in the litter, and again 
at four o'clock in the afternoon. At the last feeding an 
effort should be made to feed just a little more than the 
hens will clean up, so that there will be something left in 
the litter for them to start work on again early in the 
morning. 

Importance of Drinking Water. — One of the most im- 
portant things about caring for hens is to see that they 
always have plenty of clean, fresh drinking water before 
them. More than 65 per cent of the egg is water. Water 
also makes up 55 per cent of the hen's body. Unless a hen 
has water she cannot produce eggs, nor can she properly 
digest food. Many a hen, otherwise well fed, fails to lay 
because she is compelled to go without sufficient water. 
When laying freely, a flock of five hundred hens will re- 
quire from forty to eighty quarts of water per day. The 
warmer the weather, the more water required. The more 
eggs that are laid the more water is required. Small eggs 
usually result from a shortage of drinking water or from 
the fact that the water is so cold that the hens cannot 
drink their usual amount. 



FEEDING HENS 295 

Mineral Matter Necessary. — Laying hens should have 
more mineral matter than is furnished in ordinary foods. 
For this reason it is important that crushed oyster shells 
be supplied in abundant quantities. The desire for mineral 
matter in some form frequently causes the hen to eat her 
own eggs. A flock of hens may be broken from this habit 
by scattering a few china eggs on the floor. 

Grit Essential. — Although on most farms there is an 
abundance of small bits of limestone or gravel about the 
yards, still grit should be supplied artificially in the form 
of crushed quartz, or " chit." It must not be forgotten 
that the only teeth the hen has are those given to her in 
the form of grit. 

Inducing Hens to Eat. — The poultryman's problem is 
to induce the hen to eat an abundance of raw material so 
that she can turn out a larger quantity of manufactured 
product, rather than to see how small an amount of food 
he can keep her on. 

Hens will eat when the attendant is around and makes 
pretense of scattering grain in the litter. They have a 
curiosity which causes them to peck at everything brought 
into the room, and the more things that are brought in, 
the better the chances are that they will eat. A good 
many times the quantity of grain scattered at the noon 
feeding is negligible, but the mere pretense of scattering 
grain starts the hens to scratching and singing, a condition 
most conducive to egg production. It has been said, and 
truthfully, that the " singing hen is the laying hen." 

Variety Desirable. — Although standard mixtures should 
be used, feeding should not be confined to any particular 
mixture nor to any special ingredients. An effort should 
be made always to have the food palatable and the 



296 CARE OF LAYING HENS 

ration of the right proportion, but no opportunity should 
be lost to take advantage of seasonable fluctuations in the 
market price of poultry food products. If the price of corn 
is proportionately much lower than that of wheat, then corn 
should be used in greater quantity and the ration balanced 
by using larger proportions of by-products in the form of 
bran, wheat middlings, oil meal, and the like. However, 
the general principles underlying the compounding of a 
good ration for farm animals should not be lost sight of. 

Green Cut Bone. — When fresh and untainted, green 
cut bone can be fed with safety and profit in the propor- 
tion of one half ounce daily or one ounce every other day 
per hen. When tainted or when fed in too large quan- 
tities it may cause diarrhoea, oviduct eversion, or poisoning. 

Time to Feed Different Ingredients. — The time to feed 
whole grain is the first thing in the morning and the last 
thing at night, and in some cases for the noon meal. 

If a wet mash is fed, it should never be given before ten 
o'clock and preferably at noon. The physiological reasons 
for the above statements are clear : grain in the morning 
induces exercise ; the mash fed in the middle forenoon is a 
stimulant. Bran has a laxative effect, is a regulator and 
makes a valuable addition to finely ground foods as it gives 
them bulk and porosity, making it easier for the digestive 
fluids to permeate the mash, thus preventing poor diges- 
tion and consequent poisoning and general ill health. 

Cooking and Grinding Poultry Foods. — It is reasonable 
to suppose that cooking poultry feeds makes them more 
digestible, just as cooking food for human consumption does. 
This holds true with starch foods better than with protein 
foods. The digestion of ground feed requires less energy 
and takes place much more rapidly than the digestion of 



STANDARD RATIONS 297 

unground feeds. By grinding grain in a mill we save the 
fowl the necessity of doing the grinding. However, this 
practice cannot be continued indefinitely ; if it were, the 
fowls would not get sufficient internal exercise to keep them 
in the best of condition. 

Standard Rations 

20 pounds kaffir corn 

20 pounds wheat 

30 pounds cracked corn 

15 pounds oats 

10 pounds barley 

5 pounds sunflower seed 

This ration may be used as a standard grain ration at 
all seasons of the year. Its value is not lessened by in- 
creasing or decreasing the amount of kaffir corn and by 
decreasing or increasing the amount of cracked corn ac- 
cordingly. These two feed stuffs can be used interchange- 
ably, or the amount of corn may be reduced and the 
amount of wheat increased so that frequently poultrymen 
may feed the following ration : 

60 pounds wheat 
30 pounds corn 
10 pounds oats 

A meal mixture for fattening broilers may be made up 
as iollows : 2Q p 0un d s corn m eal 

20 pounds wheat middlings 
20 pounds ground oats 

6 pounds meat scrap 

This should be mixed with buttermilk to a thin batter 
and fed twice daily. 



298 CARE OF LAYING HENS 

Special Care Necessary. — No pains should be spared to 
keep the hens comfortable and happy. During the molt- 
ing season and on days when it is cold or damp and the 
hen's appetite is not likely to be keen, if the attendant will 
bring to her in the middle of the forenoon and the middle 
of the afternoon a small amount of hot savory mash, she 
will welcome it and eat it with such avidity that the whole 
room will for a moment be transformed into conditions of 
springtime. Such singing and scratching will be set up as 
could be duplicated naturally only in the spring of the year. 
This hot mash in winter not only warms the hen for the 
moment, but if composed of the right ingredients will so 
stimulate her appetite and the flow of digestive fluids that 
she can be made to eat a large amount of other foods and 
egg production will be increased correspondingly. 

In feeding a hot wet mash no attempt should be made 
to satisfy thoroughly the hen's appetite. Best results are 
realized when only enough is used to stimulate her appetite 
so that she will eat more of every kind of food. Only so 
much should be given at one time as will be eagerly 
eaten. 

Inducing Molting. — It is not best to induce a molt, 
though this can be done by feeding short rations for a time 
and then feeding heavily on foods rich in protein and min- 
eral salts. The best practice is to endeavor to get all the 
eggs it is possible to obtain without injury, keeping care- 
ful watch to know just when molting begins. When molt- 
ing has begun a gradual change in the kinds of foods should 
be made to hasten the molt and make it uniform throughout 
the flock. The amount of protein should be increased by 
adding linseed meal or meat, or by increasing the amount 
of milk or buttermilk fed. Too much buttermilk, or pro- 



GREEN FOODS AND GRAIN 299 

tein in any form, will cause diarrhoea, and such foods 
should be fed with care. 

Kinds of Green Foods. — Perhaps one of the best forms 
of green food for laying hens is stock beets. Other suc- 
culent feeds that may be given with good results are enumer- 
ated in the order of their desirableness : cabbage, turnips, 
potatoes, apples. Properly cured clover or alfalfa swollen 
by soaking equals or exceeds stock beets, but the trouble 
of preparation is sometimes an objection. 

Sprouted oats also make good green food, but require 
some practice for preparation. Which of these the poul- 
tryman uses should be decided entirely by availability 
and cheapness. Alfalfa is frequently used on account of 
its being an easy matter to store a sufficient supply with- 
out fear of deterioration. 

Feeding the Range Stock. — No particular effort should 
be made to force the young stock on the range other than 
to keep them growing rapidly. As a rule they should be 
given grain of the standard mixture fed to the hens, three 
times daily. Occasionally wet or dry mash should be fed 
at noon for variety. Under most favorable conditions the 
ranges are sufficiently supplied with running water, and 
furnish an abundance of grit or small stone. 

When their combs begin to redden and develop, the pul- 
lets should be taken to the laying houses and made com- 
fortable before cold weather begins. They should then be 
fed for early and continuous egg production. 

Essential Points of a Good Ration. — According to an 
eminent authority " the greatest profit is realized when an 
abundance of food best suited to produce the greatest vigor 
of the reproductive system is available to the hens." The 
essential points of a good ration for fowls are that : 



300 CARE OF LAYING HENS 

(a) It should be composed of foods every one of which 
the fowls like. 

(b) It should contain a sufficient quantity of digestible 
nutrients to supply the needs of rapid growth and large 
production. 

(c) It should have enough bulk to enable the diges- 
tive secretion to act quickly upon it. 

(d) It should not contain an excess of indigestible 
fiber (such as oat hulls, corn bran, and alfalfa stems). 

(e) A certain proportion of the ration should be of 
whole grain in order to provide muscular activity of the 
digestive organs. About one third of the ration should be 
of soft ground food for the purpose of providing quickly 
available nutrients to supply the immediate demand of 
rapid growth or heavy continuous egg yield. 

(J) A good variety of food must be provided, in which 
are included grain, green food, meat, and mineral matter. 

(g) The foods in the ration should not have an un- 
desirable effect upon the color or flavor of the product. 
Onions, barnyard manure, and carrion flavor an egg. When 
the fowl drinks from pools about the barnyard the yolk of 
the egg is given an undesirable reddish color. 

.(h) The ration must provide the two classes of food 
nutrients, protein and carbohydrates, in such proportions 
that they will supply the daily needs of the fowl's system ; 
provide sufficient and digestible protein to repair the 
wasted tissue with new growth, and produce eggs ; and 
provide the proper amount of digestible carbohydrate food 
(starch, sugar, and fat) to furnish heat, energy, and lay on 
a little surplus fuel in the form of fat. 

Shall the Poultryman Raise his Feed ? — There seems to 
be some doubt as to whether persons engaged in special 



DUST BATHS . 301 

poultry farming should or should not raise their feed. If 
one is sufficiently well versed in practice and theory to 
operate a poultry plant he can spend all of his time to 
better advantage in raising poultry than in raising feed for 
poultry. This, however, does not mean that areas should 
not be reserved for the production of green feeds. Nor does 
it mean that small areas should not be cultivated for the 
purpose of renovating the soil and at the same time growing 
such crops as can well be used as forage for horses or for 
feeding the hens. 

Dust Baths. — The primary function of a dust bath is 
to gratify the hen's instinctive desire to dust ; to keep her 
contented and comfortable. A secondary purpose, the 
value of which has been very much overrated, is to rid the 
hen's body of lice. 

Careful observation and close investigation have estab- 
lished the following points : 

First, the indoor dust bath, which has its greatest value 
in allowing the hen to dust in cold weather, when the 
ground is covered with snow, is generally so cold that the 
hen will not use it. 

Second, when it is warm enough for her to use it, the air 
of the room becomes so dusty that it is uncomfortable for 
the attendant and injurious to all the flock. 

Third, upon microscopical examination of the throat 
mucus in some cases of pneumonia, it has been found that 
the source of inflammation was due to dust particles im- 
bedded in the mucus membrane. 

Fourth, the hen's instinctive desire for wallowing or 
dusting is apparently just as thoroughly gratified by wal- 
lowing in the litter thrown upon the floor as it is in a 
specially devised dust box. 



302 . CARE OF LAYING HENS 

Fifth, hens provided with dust baths are apparently as 
much infested with lice as hens not so provided. 

Preventing Poultry Diseases. — The old maxim that 
" an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure ' : 
is a splendid guide for the poultryman. It is far better 
to prevent disease than to attempt to cure it. Sanitation 
is the one preventive. The poultry house, the drinking 
vessels, and the food containers should be kept clean. The 
drinking water should be made antiseptic by the addition 
of potassium permanganate in the proportion of one tea- 
spoonful to each ten-quart pail of drinking water, or iron 
sulphate at the rate of one tablespoonful of crystals to a 
gallon of water. Mature fowls should be given a small 
dose of Epsom salts in a wet mash every two or three 
weeks in the proportion of about five ounces to each one 
hundred hens. 

One should not wait until the spread of disease necessi- 
tates disinfection, but should disinfect regularly. It is a 
good practice to apply to all poultry buildings a heavy 
coat of whitewash once a year, and to spray the roosts, 
ceiling, and walls with a good strong disinfecting solution 
two or three times a year. The perches, nests, and crevices 
about the dropping board should be sprayed more frequently. 

When a sick fowl is found in one of the pens it is, as a 
rule, too late to attempt to cure that fowl. But it is the 
signal to begin extraordinary methods of cleaning, so that 
other fowls will not contract disease. The litter should 
be removed, the floor thoroughly cleaned, all the dust on 
the walls and crevices washed down, and then the walls 
and ceiling should be thoroughly disinfected. 

Treatment of Infectious Poultry Diseases. — Infectious 
diseases may be prevented by cleanliness and proper sani- 



TO CONTROL LICE AND MITES 303 

tation. Roup, chicken pox, white diarrhoea, cholera, con- 
junctivitis, and vent gleet are the most common diseases 
of this class. While the symptoms for each of these 
are peculiar to the disease itself, the treatment is common. 
Isolate diseased fowls, kill, and burn their carcasses. In 
case of large losses, dispose of all fowls and start anew on an 
uninfected part of the farm. Heavily coat the surface of 
the old yards with air-slaked lime and plow under. Sow 
some rank-growing crop. Thoroughly disinfect and 
whitewash all houses, coops, and equipment. 

Poultry Lice and Mites. — Body lice on poultry need 
not give the poultryman any serious concern, for despite 
all he can do there are likely to be a few on his hens. They 
can be partially removed by dusting the hens thoroughly 
with an insect powder. Repeat the dusting in ten days. 
If this is properly done it should give several months' 
freedom from the pest. The little red mite which attacks 
the hens when on the nest or roost is a very real enemy 
of the poultryman, but it can be very easily prevented and 
destroyed by simple and regularly executed disinfecting 
measures. Simple, cheap, and effective lice and mite 
killers are made as follows : 

Liquid Lice and Mite Killer — 3 quarts of kerosene to 
1 quart crude /arbolic acid. 

Lice Powder — 3 quarts gasoline, 1 quart crude carbolic 
acid ; sufficient plaster of Paris to absorb thoroughly the 
four parts of liquid. Spread the mixture on heavy paper 
until all liquid has evaporated. Rub it through a screen 
or fine flour sifter, and it is ready for use. 

Use of Lice and Mite Killer. — For body lice, paint the 
perches with the liquid just before roosting time ; or place 
a piece of brown paper thoroughly saturated with this 



3<H CARE OF LAYING HENS 

liquid in the bottom of a tight box and confine the sitting 
hen in the box for ten or fifteen minutes. When this 
method is used the box should be covered with a bag, 
through which a hole is made for the hen's head, to pre- 
vent suffocation. 

For mites, apply the liquid solution with a paint brush 
to the perches, roosts, dropping boards, and nests, and 
spray into all the corners and cracks of the house. One or 
two applications will entirely eradicate the worst infesta- 
tion of vermin. 

The liquid has also been used with splendid success in 
painting the floors of hen houses and brooders, to eradicate 
disease. 

Use of Lice Powder. — The powder is used on sitting 
hens or little chicks and will cause the lice to drop off 
dead almost instantly. The proper method of application 
is to hold the fowl over the lap by the feet and dust the 
powder well down through the feathers, using a tin can 
similar to a salt shaker. The powder can be collected and 
used repeatedly. 

Disinfectants. — Crude carbolic acid, crude creoline, or 
other cleansing preparations constitute cheap and effective 
disinfectants. Both of these mix readily with water in 
any desired proportion and pass through a spray nozzle 
without clogging. 

Wherever the hands are liable to come in contact with 
the solution do not use stronger than 2 per cent. Where 
the disinfectant is to be applied with a brush or spray 
pump, a 5 to 10 per cent solution may be used. The fol- 
lowing table for preparing solutions of a given strength 
is sufficiently accurate to be safe and effective for all 
ordinary purposes. 



EXERCISES 



305 



Table for Making Solutions of Various Strengths 

to make stock solution — strength 10% 

water disinfectant 

5 quarts i pint 



2\ gals. 




1 quart 


5 gals. 




2 quarts 


ENGTH 


WATER 


STOCK SOLUTION 


5% 


i part 


1 part 


2 2"% 


3 parts 


1 part 


1% 


9 parts 


1 part 



Table for Mixing Small Amounts 
strength water disinfectant 

1% 1 pint 1 teaspoonful 

2% 1 pint 2 teaspoonfuls 

5% 1 pint 5 teaspoonfuls 



EXERCISES 

1 . What are the chief reasons for feeding poultry three times 
daily ? 

2. Of what should an egg-producing ration be composed, and 
why ? 

3. What is the purpose of the deep litter method of feeding? 

4. Compound a good ration for laying hens not outlined in 
the text. 

5. Give reasons for each ingredient in the above ration. 

6. What is the function of each of the following ingredients 
in a poultry ration, — grit, lime, water, green food, animal 
food, and wet mash? 

7. Why is sanitation the first requisite in the control of 
poultry diseases? 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 20 



306 CARE OF LAYING HENS 

8. What are some good disinfectants to use around the 
poultry plant? 

9. Is it better to burn or to bury fowls dead from disease? 
Why? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. What poultry rations are used on the home farm? Do 
they supply all the necessary ingredients for meat or egg pro- 
duction, as the case may be? If not, try to arrange for new 
and better rations. 

2. By means of accurate records compare the old ration with 
the new, either for meat or egg production. Also compare cost 
of each and see which is most efficient. 

3. Disinfect the home poultry house and yards, using plan 
and mixtures given in this chapter. 



CHAPTER XXII 

TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS 

Types of Chickens. — Poultrymen recognize two distinct 
types among hens, — the egg type and the meat type. In the 
nervous, rangy hen is found the egg type ; in her plumper, 
less active sister, the meat type. Heavy layers have the 
bodies nicely placed on longer, trimmer legs than the meat 
type, their combs are larger, their bodies longer, and their 
pelvic arches broader. In fact, the two types are as truly 
distinct as the race horse and the draft horse, or the dairy 
cow and the beef animal. 

Breeds of Chickens. — The most important breeds of 
chickens fall into three groups, based on their utility value 
as follows : Egg Breeds, Meat Breeds, General Purpose 
Breeds. 

The Egg Breeds. — As suggested by the name, the egg 
breeds are valued primarily for egg production, though of 
late years the members of this group have won first place 
as producers of squab broilers. They are very precocious, 
frequently coming into laying at four and one half months, 
though the reasonable expectation of the keepers of this 
group is that the majority of the pullets will mature at five 
and one half months. These breeds constitute the Mediter- 
ranean group. The most popular members of this group 
are the Leghorns and the Anconas. 

307 



3 o8 



TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS 




Fig. 106. — White Orpingtons. 

Meat Breeds. — This group comprises only the Asiatic 
class, though contrary to theory more meat poultry is pro- 
duced from the general purpose breeds than from the spe- 
cial meat breeds. This condition is probably due to the 
fact that the meat breeds are not so precocious as the general 
purpose breeds and present the difficulty of fewer eggs and 
hence fewer chicks. The Cochins, Langshans, and Brah- 
mas constitute this group. 

General Purpose Breeds. — This group comprises the 
American class, the English class, and the French class, and 
as indicated by the group name are valued for their dual 
purpose. They produce a reasonable number of eggs and 
are large enough for use as meat poultry. The English 
breeds of this group were originally valued chiefly for 
meat production, but the breed shape has been slightly 
changed by environment until in America they are regu- 
larly classed as general purpose fowls. The most popular 
members of this group are the Plymouth Rocks, Rhode 
Island Reds, Wyandottes, and Orpingtons. 



SCORE CARD 



309 



A list of the general purpose breeds is as follows : 
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Rhode 
Island Reds, Buckeyes, Dorkings, Redcaps, Orpingtons, 
and Houdans. 

Poultry Judging. — ■ Poultry judging is taught by men- 
tally comparing an individual with the ideal for that variety 
and entering the demerits in the schedule of points on a 
score card authorized by the American Poultry Association. 

SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING POULTRY 

With the exception of " Remarks " column, this card is arranged to 
conform to the card adopted by the American Poultry Association. Direc- 
tions for the use of this score card are given in " The American Stand- 
ard of Perfection." 

Date 

Exhibitor 

Breed Sex 

Entry No. Band Weight 





Shape 1 Color 


Remarks 






Undeveloped, Rangy, Blocky, Carriage 


Symmetry 














Under or Over 


Weight 










Large or Small 


She 










Health, Dirty, Broken or Roughed Plumage, Scaly Legs 


Condition 


Frosted, Injured, Wild 








Large, Small, Serrations, Thumbmark, Coarse, Twisted 


Comb 


Hollow Center, Smooth, Spike, Large, Small, Tele- 
scoped, Lopped 








Long, Short, Wide, Narrow, Flat, Snaky, or Gamey 


Head 


Face Pale, Red, White, Yellow, Foreign Color 








Long, Short, Straight, Curved, Injured 


Beak 


Light, Dark, Striped 






Large, Small, Injured, One Missing 


Eves 


Litfht Colored, Xot Matching, Greenish, Golden 









Large, Small, Irregular, Injured, Frosted, Wrinkled 


Lobe> 


Red, White, Yellow, Creamy 







3io 



TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS 





Shape 


Color 


Remarks 








Large, Small, Irregular, Long, Injured, Frosted 


Wattles 


Wrinkled, Folded 








Long, Short, Undeveloped, Broken Plumage 


Neck 


Light, Dark Buff, Red, White, Undercolor, Surface, 
Ticking, Mealy 








Carried High, Low, Broken or Missing Feathers, Un- 
developed 


Wings 


Light, Dark Buff, Bows, Flights, Black, White, Ticking, 
Mealy, Shafting 

Long, Short, Narrow, Flat, Curved, Cushion, Plumage 


Back 






Light, Dark Buff, Red, White, Undercolor, Surface, 
Mealy, Shafting 








High, Low, Pinched, Broken, Maintail, Sickles, Long, 

Short 


Tail 


Light, Dark Buff, Black, White, Ticking, Surface, 
Undercolor 








Undeveloped, Flat, Narrow, Crooked Keel, Low 


Breast 


Light, Dark Buff, Under, Surface, Mealy, Shafting 


Body and 







Long, Short, Low, Too Deep, Shallow, Fat 


Fluff 


Light, Dark Buff, Under, Surface, Mealy, Shafting 






Long, Short, Bowed, Knock-kneed, Scaly, Injured, 
Down 


Legs 


Light, Faded, Spur, Missing, Yellow 








Long, Short, Crooked, Nails, Injured, Down 


Toes 


Faded, Light, Yellow 


Crest and 
Beard 1 








Sharpness 
of Feather 2 
















Outs 






SCORE 



Judge 

Secretary 

The placing of awards in the show room at present is 
largely done by first scoring the birds according to the score 
card system, and then comparing the cards, giving the 

1 Appl : es to crested breeds. 

2 Applies to Games and Game Bantams. 



RULES FOR JUDGING 311 

awards to the birds receiving the highest score. However, 
the direct comparison system of judging is coming into 
general use, especially in the largest and best exhibitions 
of the country. 

Breed Requirements. — Before judging the birds either 
by the score card system or by direct comparison it is neces- 
sary to know the requirements of conformation, color, 
feather markings, and carriage of each variety. It is also 
necessary to know what the customary defects are for each 
variety. The beginner should consult the various breed 
books and should use a score card. This card serves the 
double purpose of aiding the judge to keep in mind the 
several defects he should look for in each breed and of 
furnishing to the owner a record of the judge's reasons 
for putting the bird in any particular section. 

Rules for Judging. — Some of the rules which it is neces- 
sary for the beginner in poultry judging to fix in his mind 
are : 

a. That place of origin, temperament, and purpose 
make the class. 

b. That shape and size make the breed. 

c. That color and marking of feathers and form of comb 
make the variety. 

The four principal class groups into which all standard 
varieties of poultry are divided, are as follows : 

Group I. The Mediterranean class. 

Group II. The American, English, and French classes. 

Group III. The Asiatic class. 

Group IV. The Oriental and Exhibition classes. 

The Mediterranean Class. — It is supposed that this 
class originated in Southern Europe along the shores of the 
Mediterranean Sea. 



3 12 



TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



MOTTLED 




SPANGLED 




Fig. 107. — Different feather markings. 



EGG BREEDS 313 

Members of this group are of nervous, active tempera- 
ment ; non-sitters ; good foragers, with close-feathered 
bodies ; unfeathered legs ; medium to large comb and head 
furnishings ; extremely precocious. All breeds of this group 
lay large eggs with chalk- white shell. 

They are small to medium in size, set well up on clean 
legs, and in outline are an oblong oval with small end 
toward the shoulders. The several breeds of this group are 
distinguished by shape of back and carriage of tail. 

The Mediterranean Class includes five breeds, as follows : 

1. Leghorns, 2. Minorcas, 3. Spanish, 4. Blue Andalu- 
sians, 5. Anconas. These are the so-called egg breeds. 
The varieties of all breeds in this group have white ear 
lobes. The breeds may be distinguished one from the other 
by comparison of (a) size, (b) comb, (c) back, (d) tail. 

The varieties of the several breeds in this group are dis- 
tinguished one from the other either by shape of comb or 
feather color or feather marking. 

Example of classification by above method : 

Group : I. 

Class : Mediterranean, as shown by sprightly carriage, 
nervous temperament, and white ear lobes. 

Breed : Leghorn, as shown by oval shape of body when 
viewed from any direction. Small to medium size body. 
Distinguished from Minorcas by shape of back and shape of 
comb ; and from Anconas by individuality of the Ancona 
plumage. 

Varieties : Rose Comb White Leghorns are readily dis- 
tinguished from Single Comb White Leghorns by their dif- 
ferent forms of comb, and the Single Comb Brown, Buff, 
and White varieties of Leghorns can readily be distinguished 
by color and marking of their plumage. 



3H TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS 




Rose Comb White Leghorns 



Mottled Anconas 






W^;^,^. ' 




Single Comb White Leghorns 




Rose Comb Brown Leghorns 





Single Comb Buff Leghorns Rose Comb Black Minorcas 

Fig. 108. — Types of chickens among the egg breeds. 



DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS 315 

The American, English, and French Classes. — The 

members of this group are active but not nervous ; are 
fair to good foragers ; feathered more loosely than the 
breeds of Group I ; good to excellent sitters and mothers ; 
are not so precocious as Group I, seldom reaching maturity 
before six to seven months. As a group they are average to 




Fig. 109. — A White Leghorn. 

good layers of fair-sized brown-shelled eggs, though some 
individuals of highly specialized strains have made wonder- 
ful egg records. The members of this group originated in 
either America, England, or France, but in all cases have 
been thoroughly Americanized. 

The breeds of this group, already enumerated under 
dual purpose breeds, are of medium size and stockily built. 
The shapes of the several breeds in this group when viewed 
from the side vary from almost round to rectangular, and 



316 



TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS 



this variation in body shape serves as one of the best in- 
dexes to the several breeds. 

The several varieties of each breed are distinguished one 
from the other by shape of comb or color of feathers. All 
of this group have red ear lobes. Nearly all members of 
the French class have five toes ; this is also true of the Eng- 




Fig. no. — A White Plymouth Rock. 

lish class, the Orpingtons however being a notable excep- 
tion. Members of the American class have four toes. 

The Asiatics. — Members of this group are of sluggish, 
phlegmatic temperament, with strong predisposition to 
broodiness, though their extreme size and heavily feathered 
legs and toes make them undesirable sitters or mothers. 
They are poor foragers and indifferent layers. They lay 
medium to large-sized eggs with brown shells. They are 
not precocious, seldom reaching maturity before seven 
and a half to eight months. As indicated by their class 



EXHIBITION CLASSES 317 

name, it is believed that the different members of this 
group originated from stock imported from Asia. 

This group comprises the Brahma, Cochin, and Langshan, 
— the largest breeds of fowls. One of the distinguish- 
ing characteristics of the group is the feathered legs. The 
three breeds of the group can be distinguished one from the 











<*> Ml, i 


"/jlBli wNk' 









Fig. in. — A Black Langshan. 

other by shape of back. Other distinguishing characteris- 
tics are form of comb, length of leg, and feathering of legs 
and toes. 

The varieties of these breeds are distinguished one from 
the other by color of feather. 

The Oriental and Exhibition Classes. — For the most 
part individuals of this group are very small, of various 
temperaments and sources of origin. However, the group- 
ing is based on the fact that all are bred for their exhibition 
value on account of fancy color or feather marking. The 



3i8 



TYPES AND BREEDS OF CHICKENS 




Rose comb 




Pea comb 




Strawberry comb 



Fig. 112. — Types of combs. 



Cornish, Game, Malay, Sumatra, and the several Bantam 
breeds belong to this group. In addition to the above 
groups there are the Hamburg, Polish, and several other 
miscellaneous breeds. 

The person learning poultry judging should study the out- 
line on page 313 in order to apply it readily to the individual 
fowl to be judged. While all of these things cannot be 
seen or known at once, he will quickly associate them with 
individuals of the various groups he is judging. After he 
becomes acquainted with the groups the next thing is to 



EXHIBITION CLASSES 319 

learn to recognize the breeds in each group. This can be 
done by learning the requirements of body conformation, 
comb shape, and tail carriage for each of the breeds. This 
will come by handling the actual specimens, and can be 
developed only by practice and a careful study of the 
characteristics of each breed as outlined in more complete 
treatises on this subject. 

EXERCISES 

1. Reproduce from memory the principal points on the 
poultry score card. 

2. Name the characteristics of each of the four great groups 
of chickens. 

3. How does the Asiatic group differ from the Oriental ? 

4. Arrange the four groups in order of size. 

5. Arrange the four groups in order of general appearance. 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Study the home flock to determine the group or groups to 
which the chickens belong. 

2. Study the home flock to ascertain characteristics of breed 
or breeds represented. In making reports give reasons for your 
decisions. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE 

Although few poultrymen and farmers care to raise 
turkeys, ducks, and geese on a large scale, some or all of 
these fowls are found on almost every farm. A brief outline 
of the details necessary to success in the production of these 
fowls is here included. 

TURKEYS 

According to the American standard of perfection, there 
are several recognized varieties of turkeys, as follows : 
Bronze, Narragansett, White, Black, Buff, Slate, and 
Bourbon. Of these the Bronze is the most popular. 

The Bronze is the largest of all the standard varieties, 
the weight for pullets being sixteen pounds ; hens, twenty 
pounds; cockerels, twenty-five pounds; yearling cocks, 
thirty-three pounds ; and adult cocks, thirty-six pounds. 
The preferred weight for market at Thanksgiving time is 
from fourteen to thirty pounds. 

The egg yield of a turkey hen is from eighteen to thirty 
eggs, each of which can usually be counted on to produce a 
living poult under natural conditions. A common source of 
trouble in raising young turkeys is brought about by con- 
tinued inbreeding. There are so few turkeys raised in some 
localities that all of the turkeys in a neighborhood within a 
radius of ten or fifteen miles have descended from a single 
pair. Inbreeding of this sort is entirely too close. 

320 



KIND OF HENS TO SELECT 



321 



Kind of Hens to Select. — No matter what variety of 
turkeys may be selected for keeping, they should, above all 
things, be strong, vigorous, healthy, and well matured, but 
not akin. Better secure the females from one locality and 
the male from another to insure their non-relationship, 
rather than run the risk of inbreeding. 

Rangers Are to Be Preferred. — Though turkeys may be 
yarded and handled successfully, with sufficient care they 





Bronze turkeys 



Narragansett turkeys 




White Holland turkeys 
Fig. 113. — Varieties of turkeys. 

do best when they have the entire range of the farm. When 
given free range they pick up injurious insects, weeds, and 
waste grain that cannot be utilized in any other way. The 
cost of raising them is thus greatly reduced, and they seem 
to be in better health where they have free range. Wheat, 
oats, barley, corn, in fact any grain that makes good chicken 

T. AND L. ANIMAL HUSB. — 21 



322 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE 

feed can be fed to turkeys. Grit, shell, and water are 
necessary, as with other poultry. 

Turkeys do best if they can roost in the open air, another 
reason for giving them the range of the farm. 

Nesting Provisions. — • The turkey hen usually begins to 
lay in the latter part of March or early in April. If the eggs 
are likely to be chilled, they should be gathered in order to 
protect them from the cold. If it is necessary to gather 
the eggs they should be replaced with some other sort of egg 
until the turkey becomes broody. If all eggs are removed, 
she will change her nest. 

It is well to provide an old barrel or a box, which may be 
entered freely by the turkey hen, to protect the nest from 
the weather. Soft straw or hay is the best nest material, 
though if these are not at hand clean, dry leaves make an 
excellent nest. On account of the fact that the turkey 
hens produce such a very small number of eggs, it is best 
not to attempt to hatch the eggs with domestic hens or 
incubators, though of the two substitute methods the hen 
is to be preferred. 

Incubation of Turkey Eggs. — The period of incubation 
is from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. The fresher 
eggs will hatch a few hours sooner than the older ones. The 
best success attends the hatch when not more than nineteen 
eggs are given to a turkey hen and not more than ten eggs 
to a domestic hen. A turkey hen when sitting should be 
supplied with food and water near by, so that these will 
be available just as soon as she comes from the nest. 
Wheat and corn are the best food at this time. 

Brooding Young Turkeys. — It is a practice of most 
breeders to set a turkey hen and a domestic hen at the same 
time, both on turkey eggs, and then to give all of the poults 



DUCKS 323 

to the turkey hen, since the turkey seems to be the more 
successful of the two in raising the young brood. 

After the young turkeys have grown large enough to 
range the farm they require little attention until fattening 
time comes, when they can be fattened by the use of the 
rations given to chickens for the same purpose. 

DUCKS 

Of the eleven standard breeds of ducks, — Pekin, Ayles- 
bury, Rouen, Cayuga, Call, East India, Crested, Muscovy, 
Buff, Indian Runner, and Swedish, — raised for fancy or 
market purposes, the two most popular breeds and the ones 
most commonly found on the farm are the White Pekin and 
the Indian Runner, either fawn or white. The Pekin duck 
is valued primarily for its carcass as young roast duck, or 
" green duck," while the Indian Runner is valued for its 
great power of egg production. It is not unusual for Indian 
Runner females to lay as many as one hundred seventy 
eggs a year, rivaling in this respect the best strains of 
domestic hens. The Rouen is a strong rival of the Pekin 
in some sections. 

Quick Growth Necessary. — The quicker the flesh is put 
on, the more tender it is. The duck grower has his duck- 
lings under absolute control all the time. He keeps their 
appetites keen and gives them all the flesh-producing 
food they will eat. They are penned in quarters sufficiently 
large to allow proper exercise, but not enough to make the 
flesh hard from too much activity. These pens are kept 
absolutely clean, as are also the yards. In some sections 
where the soil is sticky and unsanitary, duck growers cover 
their yards with straw and care for them the same as for 
those in the indoor pens. 



324 



TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE 




Fig. 114. — Pekin ducks. 

Only Drinking Water Necessary. — Ducks are given fresh 
clean water to drink, which is very essential, but none to 
play or wallow in. The expert duck grower has his bird 
ready for market in ten weeks from the shell. It is larger 
and many times more toothsome than the six months old 
duck sent to market by the farmer. 

Caring for the Eggs. — A good strain of breeding ducks 
will lay an average of at least one hundred thirty-five eggs 
per season, which should, with proper feed, be eighty-five 
per cent fertile. Ducks do not care for nests. They pre- 
fer to drop their eggs on the floor. They lay between four 
and eight o'clock in the morning. They should be fas- 
tened in their houses the night before and fed in the yards at 
8 a.m. and 4 p.m. daily. The eggs should be collected 
after liberating the ducks in the morning. If the pens are 
clean the eggs will be clean. The soiled ones should be 
rinsed in tepid water and dried with a towel. 

Hatching with the Incubator. — As soon as enough eggs 
have been collected to fill an incubator they should be set. 



FEEDING AND CARE OF DUCKLINGS 325 

The incubator must be run at 102 the first two weeks, 102^° 
the third week, and 103 the last week of hatch. The eggs 
are turned once a day during the first week, then twice daily 
until they pip. After that the machine must be kept 
closed until the hatching is over. 

Feeding and Care of Ducklings. — After removal of the 
egg shells the ducklings are left in the machine until thor- 
oughly dry. They are then ready to remove to a brooder, 
which should be at a temperature of 90 . Any brooder 
practical for chickens is good for ducklings, allowing two 
ducklings the same space as three chicks. 

Ducklings ought to have clean, sharp river sand and 
fresh water before them. They should be fed five times a 
day with bread crumbs mixed with the boiled infertile 
eggs from the incubator, which are ground fine in a meat 
chopper, with enough crumbs to make a dry food. Stale 
bread is preferable, but it must be perfectly sweet, not 
moldy or sour. 

After the fifth day a growing mash, made of six parts 
bran, two parts corn meal, two of flour, five of cut greens, 
ten per cent of beef scrap, sand, grit, and oyster shell, should 
be fed. They are given all they will eat up clean. After 
eight weeks of age they are gradually changed to a fattening 
food, consisting of four parts of corn meal, two parts of low 
grade flour, one part of bran, twelve per cent of beef scrap ; 
to this should be added a little cut greens, sand, shell, and 
grit to aid in digestion. Many feed good food, but fail to 
provide proper grit to digest it. The cut greens may be 
either lawn clippings, green clover, corn fodder, dwarf Essex 
rape, or wheat. If ducklings have been carefully fed and 
attended to they will average ten pounds or more to the 
pair. At ten weeks they are in the best condition to kill. 



326 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE 

If they are now properly prepared for market they will com- 
mand a price that makes production profitable. 




Fig. 115. — Indian Runner ducks. 

It costs about a third less to produce one pound of 
duck flesh than it does to produce one pound of chicken. 
Ducks are practically free from disease, easy to raise, and 
readily marketed. 

Indian Runner Ducks. — The Indian Runner ducks are 
so called because they are supposed to have originated in 
India and because of their peculiar manner of running. 
They excel many breeds of hens as egg producers. 

Indian Runner ducks are the hardiest of all do- 
mestic fowls, being practically free from all contagious 
diseases. They bear confinement well and are especially 
adapted to limited quarters. It is not necessary to have a 
pond or a quantity of water to raise them successfully, — 
just enough for them to drink and so that they can cover 
their heads. 

They are active and will forage for part of their living. 
They thrive on coarse feed, with little attention and cheap 
housing, and are very rapid growers. 

The Indian Runner ducks possess great laying qual- 
ities, and they should be bred with this one object in 
view, preserving, of course, the standard markings. If 



CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF LAYING DUCKS 327 

fed for this purpose, they commence laying at from four 
to six months of age. Ducklings hatched in June or 
July often lay through the entire winter. They lay well 
until several years old. Their capacity for winter egg pro- 
duction is their strongest characteristic. 

Indian Runner eggs are not quite so large as the eggs of 
other varieties of ducks, but larger than a hen's egg. They 
are of a delicate flavor quite unlike that of all the other 
ducks' eggs. The shell is a beautiful white color with an 
occasional tint, so that the egg is attractive in appearance. 

Care and Management of Laying Ducks. — After the 
first of May laying ducks do better if allowed to run. 
They should be shut up in a pen or inclosure, however, 
until 8 or 9 a.m., when they will be through laying for the 
day. 

For winter protection a warm house is necessary. It 
need not be costly or large. A tight shed, eight feet high 
in front, four feet high at the back, open to the south will 
meet all requirements. An earth floor with plenty of straw 
for bedding can be used. 

Laying ducks require food that will produce eggs and 
make shell. The same rations that are fed to laying hens 
are also suitable for the feeding of ducks. 

Ducks must have shade in hot weather, exercise, and 
plenty of fresh air. They prefer to stay outside no matter 
how stormy the weather, but they may be trained to use a 
house or shed. Poor sleeping quarters, a lack of bedding, 
or allowing them to sleep out in bad weather, causes rheu- 
matism, about the only disease to which they are subject. 
A little care in this one particular will insure against loss 
of birds. Ducks may be allowed to stay outside except at 
night during cold or stormy weather. They are hardier 



328 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE 

than chickens, and with a little care and with proper shelter 
they will show most gratifying results. 

Feeding troughs and water fountains must be kept clean. 
Ducklings should be sheltered from rain till well feathered. 
Shade should be provided for the hot summer weather. 
They should always have water before them while eating, 
whether young or old, but should not be allowed to swim 
in it till feathered, 

GEESE 

Of the six standard breeds of geese, — Toulouse, Embden, 
African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian, and Egyptian, — the 
most popular one is the Toulouse. 

A few geese can be kept on a farm without causing much 
trouble, but if their number is large they must be restrained, 
fenced far away from the house, the barn, and the farming 
and pasturing lands. An ideal place for geese is rough up- 
land, slanting down into marshy places where there is at 
least one pool of water in which the geese may swim. The 
uplands furnish a change of pasture for them and a dry 
place for them to rest. If a few shade trees grow upon the 
hillside, their shelter will be found desirable ; if there are no 
trees, a low, slant-roof shed open toward the south should be 
built as a protection from sun, rain, and snow. Eggs laid by 
geese having free access to water are more likely to be fertile 
than are eggs laid by geese without access to such a pool. 

Ranges for Geese. — Geese may live almost entirely by 
grazing. Marshy lands are suitable pasture for geese, since 
they furnish a supply of rich, juicy grasses, snails, water 
beetles, worms, and bugs that grow in such places. Where 
such pasturage can be had, even though the land may be 
worthless, it is excellent upon which to grow geese. 



BREEDING STOCK 



329 




Breeding Stock. — For beauty and elegance the Gray 
Toulouse and the White Embden surpass all other kinds of 
geese. It is not unusual for adults of these two breeds to 
weigh from forty to forty-five pounds per pair. Either 
kind can be made to 
weigh from twelve to six- 
teen pounds each when 
between eight and nine 
months old, at which age 
they are best for table 
use. 

Geese lay from sixteen 
to forty eggs each in a 
single year, averaging 
about twenty-five eggs 
each. 

Laying geese do best 
when not too fat. A 
mixture of equal parts 
of corn meal, wheatmid- 
dlings, wheat bran, and 
ground oats, with a little 
animal food mixed in, 
is best for them. This 
should be moistened and 
fed in shallow troughs. 

When corn is fed to them they may be taught to eat dry 
grain. After the birds become accustomed to this kind 
of feeding it does not injure them, but they do not thrive so 
well nor will they make such tender meat as when they 
receive a meal-mash mixture. Geese are liable to " blind 
staggers " or choking spells from eating dry grain without 




Fig. 116. — An African gander crossed with 
Toulouse makes the finest meat fowl. 



330 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE 

a plentiful supply of water at hand. Their habit is to eat 
a little and drink a little, and continue doing so until they 
have enough. 

Natural Incubation Preferred. — Geese hatch their own 
eggs ; when they lay more than a nestful the surplus eggs 
should be hatched under a hen. The incubation period is 
from twenty-eight to thirty days. The goslings should be 




Fig. 117. — ■ White Chinese geese. 

left in the nest until they are perfectly dry. When taken 
outside they should be placed in a small inclosure provided 
with some kind of shelter. Goslings must be protected from 
cold and rain until they are at least two weeks old, after 
which they may be given their liberty. 

Feeding Young Goslings. — The first food for young 
goslings should be bread and milk, made into a moist mash 
with wheat bran or wheat middlings ; or a mixture of one 
part each of corn meal and ground oats and two parts of 
wheat bran. This should be moistened with either hot 
milk or hot water and made into a crumbly mass which the 
goslings can pick up easily. The food should never be hot, 
only slightly warm. Goslings, as well as geese, should have 
a plentiful' supply of grass for grazing. They will eat grass 



FATTENING GEESE 



331 




Fig. 118. — Mixed flock of geese. 



freely and appear to grow fat on it, but when fed a proper 
grain ration goslings grow very rapidly. 

Fattening Geese. — While being fattened, geese should 
be kept perfectly quiet and should be fed all the food they 
will eat. Their food should consist of equal parts by meas- 
ure of corn meal, ground oats, wheat middlings, and wheat 
bran, mixed and moistened with either milk or water. 
Geese so fed will be fit for table use within ten or twelve 
days. In some localities, when the geese fed in this way 
are so fat as to quit feeding, they are shut up in dark places 
and stuffed with specially prepared " noodles " three or four 
times a day until they become excessively fat. Stuffed 
geese develop abnormally large livers, which are prized as 
a great delicacy. In a few regions of the United States, 
the stuffed-goose industry has developed large propor- 
tions. 



332 TURKEYS, DUCKS, AND GEESE 

EXERCISES 

i. In growing turkeys, what are the essential points to be re- 
membered in the selection of breeding stock ? 
- 2. Why do turkeys do better on the open range than under 
confinement ? 

3. What are the essential differences between Pekin and 
Indian Runner ducks? 

4. What are the essential ingredients of the feed for young 
ducks? Give reason for each ingredient selected. 

5. How does the food for market ducks differ from that for 
layers ? Why ? 

6. What are the essential differences, if any, in the care and 
management of ducks and geese? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Get permission to produce and market a flock of either 
turkeys, ducks, or geese. Keep accurate record of cost and 
returns. 

2. Study the home method of producing either of these classes 
of poultry and report on how it may be improved. 



APPENDIX 



HAECKER'S FEEDING STANDARD FOR THE DAIRY COW 





Daily Allowance of 


Digestible 






Nutrients 






Crude 


Carbo- 


Fat 




Protein 


hydrates 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


For support of the 1000-lb. cow .... 


0.700 


7.00 


O.IOO 


To the allowance for support add : 








For each lb. of 3.0 per cent milk .... 


0.040 


O.19 


0.015 


For each lb. of 3.5 per cent milk . . 




0.042 


O.21 


0.016 


For each lb. of 4.0 per cent milk . . 




0.047 


0.23 


0.018 


For each lb. of 4.5 psr cent milk . . 




0.049 


0.26 


0.020 


For each lb. of 5.0 per cent milk . . 




0.051 


0.27 


0.021 


For each lb. of 5.5 per cent milk . . 




O.054 


O.29 


0.022 


For each lb. of 6.0 per cent milk . . 




0.057 


0.31 


0.024 


For each lb. of 6.5 per cent milk . . 




G.061 


o.33 


0.025 


For each lb. of 7.0 per cent milk . . 




0.063 


0-3S 


0.027 



To formulate a ration, according to this standard, for a 
900 pound cow, producing 30 lbs. 4 per cent milk, the pro- 
cedure is as follows : 

Digestible nutrients required daily by the 900 pound cow 
yielding 30 pounds of 4 per cent milk daily. 





Crude Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


For maintenance . . . 
For 30 lbs. 4 per cent milk . 


0.63 
1. 410 


6.30 
6.90 


O.09 

0.5AO 


Total 


2.04 


13.20 


0.63 



333 



334 



APPENDIX 



For maintenance, the 900 pound cow requires nine 
tenths as much of the digestible nutrients as the 1000 
pound cow, or 0.63 pound of digestible protein, 6.30 pounds 
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.09 pound of digestible 
fat. For the production of 30 pounds of 4 per cent milk 
there is required an additional 1.41 pounds of digestible 
protein, 6.90 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and. 
0.540 pound of fat, making the standard for the 900 
pound cow yielding 30 pounds of 4 per cent milk daily 
consist of 2.04 pounds of digestible protein, 13.2 pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates, and 0.63 pound of digestible fat 
material. In order to calculate the ration that will satisfy 
the requirements of the standard, the same method is em- 
ployed as in determining the amount for the Wolff-Lehmann 
standards. 

AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING 
CONSTITUENTS IN AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS 



Name of Feed 



Concentrates 

Grains, Seeds, and their 
Parts 

Dent corn . . . 
Flint corn 1 . . 
Sweet corn l . . 
Corn-and-cob meal 
Gluten feed . . 
• Hominy feed (chop) 
Wheat .... 
Red-dog flour * . 



Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 100 

Lbs. 



Lbs. 

89.4 
88.7 
91.2 

84.9 
90.8 
90.4 

89-5 
90.1 



Digestible Nutrients 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 

7 " 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



Lbs. 
66.8 
66.2 

63-7 
60.0 
52.8 
60.5 

67-5 
57-o 



Fat 



Lbs. 

4-3 
4-3 
7.0 
2.9 
2.9 
7-4 
1-5 
3-4 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 

16.5 
16.8 
18.6 
13.6 
40.0 
16.8 
19.O 
29.4 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 

7-i 
7-i 
7-i 
5-7 
3-7 
9.8 

5-5 



Potash 



Lbs. 

5-7 



^rom "Feeds and Feeding" by Henry and Morrison. 



APPENDIX 



335 





Total 
Dry 

Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in i 000 Lbs. 


Name of Feed 










Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 






IN IOO 

Lbs. 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Nitro- 
gen 


Potash 


Grains, Seed, and their 
















Parts — Continued 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Standard wheat mid- 
















dlings (shorts) . . 


88.8 


13-0 


45-7 


4-5 


27.O 


26.3 


15-3 


Wheat bran, all 
















analyses .... 


88.1 


11.9 


42.0 


2-5 


24.6 


26.9 


15.2 


Wheat screenings 


88.4 


9-6 


48.2 


1.9 


20.0 


II. 7 


8.4 


Rye 1 


9i-3 


9-5 


69.4 


1.2 


18.1 


8.6 


5-8 


Rye middlings 1 . . 


88.2 


II.O 


52.9 


2.6 


22.9 


12.3 


9.6 


Barley 


89.2 


8.4 


65.3 


1.6 


19.2 


7-9 


4.8 


Emmer (speltz) . . 


92.0 


10.0 


70.3 


2.0 


18.4 


7.6 


5-7 


Oats 


89.6 


10.7 


50-3 


3.8 


18.2 


7.8 


4.8 


Oat hulls l . ... 


92.6 


1.3 


38.5 


0.6 


5-3 


1.6 


4-9 


Buckwheat . . . 


86.6 


8.1 


48.2 


2.4 


17.3 


6.9 


3-o 


Buckwheat middlings 


87.2 


22.7 


37-5 


6.1 


42.7 


12.3 


11.4 


Buckwheat hulls 1 . 


86.8 


1.2 


28.6 


0.5 


7-3 


4-3 


14.7 


Rice 


87.6 


6.4 


79.2 


0.4 


11.8 


1.8 


0.9 


Canada field pea . . 


85.0 


19.7 


49-3 


0.4 


37-9 


8.4 


10. 1 


Cowpea 


854 


16.8 


54-9 


1.1 


32.8 


10. 1 


12.0 


Soy bean .... 


88.3 


29.1 


23-3 


14.6 


53-6 


10.4 


12.6 


Kaffir corn . . . 


90.1 


5-2 


44-3 


1.4 


17.9 







Milo maize seed : 


91.0 


4.9 


44.8 


i-3 


17.1 







Flaxseed .... 


90.8 


20.6 


17.1 


29.0 


36.2 


13-9 


10.3 


Linseed meal, old 
















process .... 


90.2 


30.2 


32.0 


6.9 


54-2 


16.6 


13-7 


Linseed meal, new 
















process .... 


91.0 


3i-5 


35-7 


2.4 


60.0 


17.4 


13-4 


Cottonseed meal 


93-o 


37-6 


21.4 


9.6 


72.5 


30.4 


i5-8 


Cottonseed hulls 


88.9 


0.3 


33-2 


1-7 


6.7 


4-3 


10.4 


Dried beet pulp . . 


91.6 


4.1 


64.9 





12.9 


2.2 


3-i 


Dried molasses beet 
















Pulp 


92.0 


6.1 


68.7 





15-4 


i-5 


18.1 


Cow's milk . . . 


12.8 


3-4 


4.8 


3-7 


5-8 


1.9 


1-7 


Cow's milk, colostrum 


25-4 


17.6 


2.7 


3-6 


28.2 


6.6 


1.1 


Skim milk .... 


9.4 


2.9 


5-3 


0.3 


5-o 


2.1 


2.0 


Buttermilk . . . 


9.9 


3-8 


3-9 


1.0 


6.4 


1-7 


1.6 


Whey 1 


6.2 


0.6 


5-o 


0.2 


1.0 


1.1 


2.0 


Tankage l . . . . 


93-0 


50.1 





11.6 


86.2 


139.0 


3-o 



1 " Feeds and Feeding." 



336 



APPENDIX 





Total 
Dry 

Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 


Name of Feed 
















IN IOO 

Lbs. 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
h> drates 


Fat 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Dried Roughage 
















Fodder corn, ears, if 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


any, remaining 


57-8 


2-5 


34-6 


1.2 


7.2 


5-4 


8.9 


Corn stover, ears re- 
















moved .... 


59-5 


1.4 


31.2 


0.7 


6.1 


3-8 


10.9 


Timothy, all analyses 


86.8 


2.8 


42.4 


i-3 


9.4 


3-3 


14.2 


Kentucky blue grass 


86.o 


4.4 


40.2 


0.7 


12.5 


4.0 


15-7 


Red clover .... 


84.7 


7.1 


37-8 


1.8 


19.7 


5-5 


18.7 


Mammoth red clover 1 


78.8 


6.2 


34-7 


2.1 


17.1 


5-2 


11.6 


Alsike clover . . . 


90-3 


8.4 


39-7 


1.1 


20.5 


5-o 


13-9 


White clover . . . 


90-3 


".5 


42.2 


i.5 


25.1 


7.8 


13.2 


Soy bean .... 


88.2 


10.6 


40.9 


1.2 


23.8 . 









89-5 


5.8 


39-3 


i-3 


14-3 


5-2 


14.7 


Alfalfa, western 
















United States . . 


93-2 


II. I 


39- 1 


0.6 


24.7 


6.1 


17.9 


Wheat 


90.4 


0.8 


35-2 


0.4 


5-o 


2.2 


6-3 


Rye 


92.9 


0.7 


39-6 


0.4 


5-o 


2.5 


8.6 


Oat 


90.8 


i-3 


39-5 


0.8 


5-8 


3-o 


17.7 


Barley 


85.8 


0.9 


40.1 


0.6 


7.0 


2.0 


10.6 


Fresh Green Roughage 
















Fodder corn, all va- 
















rieties .... 


20.7 


1.0 


11.9 


0.4 


2.9 


1.1 


3-9 


Fresh Green Grasses 
















Pasture grass . . . 


20.0 


2-5 


IO.I 


0.5 


5-6 


2.6 


7-4 


Kentucky blue grass 1 


34-9 


2.8 


19.7 


0.8 


6.6 







Timothy .... 


38.4 


i-5 


19.9 


0.6 


5-o 


2.6 


7.6 


Fresh Green Legumes, 
















Grasses, and Leg- 
















umes Combined 
















Red clover .... 


29.2 


2.9 


14.9 


0.7 


7.0 


i-5 


4-8 


Mammoth red clover 1 


20.0 


2.0 


9.1 


0.2 


4.8 







Alsike clover x . . 


25.2 


2.6 


11.4 


0.5 


6.2 


1.1 


2.0 


Crimson clover . . 


19.1 


2.4 


9.1 


0.5 


5-o 


1.2 


4.0 


Sweet clover x . . . 


20.0 


2-5 


8.4 


0.4 


6.1 


2.4 


6.7 


Alfalfa 


28.2 


3-6 


12. 1 


0.4 


7-7 


i-3 


5-6 


Barley and peas . . 


20.0 


2.1 


9.1 


0.4 


4-5 







Oats and peas . . 


20.3 


1.8 


10.2 


0.4 


3-8 


i-5 


5-o 



1 " Feeds and Feeding." 



APPENDIX 



337 





Total 
Drv 

Matter 

IN IOO 

Lbs. 


Digestible Nutrients 


Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1 000 Lbs. 


Name of Feed 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Roots and Tubers 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Potato 

Mangel 

Flat turnip . . . 


20.9 
9.1 

13-5 

9.9 


I.I 
I.O 

1-3 

0.9 


15-7 
5-5 
9.8 

6.4 


O.I 

0.2 
0.1 

O.I 


3-4 
2.2 
2.9 
2.1 


1.6 

0.9 
0.8 
0.9 


5-8 
3-8 
3-7 
3-4 


Silage 
















Corn, recent analyses 
Corn, ears removed ! 
Red clover .... 


26.4 
26.3 
28.O 


1.4 
I.I 

1-5 


14.2 

14.9 
9.2 


0.7 
0.7 
0.5 


4-3 
3-5 
6.7 


1.1 


3-7 








Brewers' grains x . . 

Corn cannery refuse, 

husk 1 . . . . 

Pea cannery refuse l . 


29.7 

16.2 
23.2 


4.6 

0.4 
2.1 


n-5 

10. 1 
i3-i 


1.8 

0.4 
0.8 


IO. T 
2.2 

4-5 


4.2 


0.5 











1 "Feeds and Feeding." 



T. AND L. ANIMAL IIT'SB. 22 



INDEX 



Aberdeen Angus cattle, 106, 113-114 
Abomasum, 20 
Absorption of food, 17, 18 
Age, and digestion, 27 
Alfalfa, 38-39 

a legume, 37 

gas from eating, 20 

mineral matter in, 15 

protein in, 13 

vitamine in, 16 

with molasses, 56 
Amber cane, 34 

American Merino sheep, 131-132 
American Saddle horse, 81 
American Trotter and Pacer, 81, 94-96 

Morgan horse, 96 

race horse, 95-96 

Standard Bred horse, 96 
Amino acids, 18 
Ancona chickens, 313 
Angora goats, 149-150 
Animal body, composition, 11-21 
Animal starch, 13 
Appendix, 333~337 
Arabian horse, 81, 96-97 
Ash, in feed stuffs, 22 
A--imilation of food, 17 
Ayrshire Association, 270 
Ayrshire cattle, 106, 122-124 

Bacon hogs, judging, 191-192 
Bacterial fermentation, 20 
Balanced ration, 63 
Barley, 37, 45-46 

carbohydrates in, 14 

feeds, 53-54 

value of crushing, 26 
Barns, 245 
Beans, a legume, 37 
Bedding, 29 
Beef cattle, 106 

Aberdeen Angus, 106, 113-114 

care, 236-243 



Beef cattle — Continued 

equipment, 241 

feeding, 239-240 

Galloway, 106, 114 

Hereford, 106, iio-ni 

housing, 241-242 

judging, 165-176 

management, 236-243 

Polled Durham, 106 

Polled Hereford, 106, n 2-1 13 

production, 237-238 

sire, care of, 237 

water for, 242 

West Highland, 106, 11 5-1 17 
Beef fat, vitamine in, 16 
Beet pulp, 55-56 
Belgian draft horse, 79, 84-85 
Bermuda grass, 33, 37 
Black Face Highland sheep, 147-149 
Bloat, 20 
Blood, circulation, 18 

iron in, 21 

magnesium in, 21 
Blood meal, 59, 60 
Blue Andalusian chickens, 313 
Blue grass, Kentucky, 34 
Bones, magnesium in, 21 

mineral matter in, 15 
Brain cells, 12 
Brahma chickens, 317 
Bran, corn, 54 

mineral matter in, 15 

rice, 53 

wheat, 51 
Breed Associations, 267-271 

requirements for admission, 269 
Breed, denned, 79 
Breeding horses, judging, 229-230 
Breeds of cattle, 106-130 

of horses, 79-105 

of sheep, 131-151 

of swine, 152-164 
Brome grass, 33, 36-37 



339 



340 



INDEX 



Broncho, 81, 99 
Brooder, 286 

house, 289-290 
Broom corn, 34 
Brown Swiss Association, 270 
Brown Swiss cattle, 106, 124-125 
Buckwheat, carbohydrates in, 14 

middlings, 52 
Burro, 102 

Butter fat, vitamine in, 16 
Buttermilk, 61 
By-product feeds, 32, 51-62 

barley, 53-54 

beet pulp, 55-56 

blood meal, 59, 60 

buttermilk, 61 

condimental stock foods, 62 

corn bran, 54 

cottonseed meal, 57 

from cereals, 53-54 

from corn, 54-55 

from dairying, 60-61 

from manufacture of sugar, 55-56 

from slaughtering animals, 32, 59- 
60 

germ meal, 54 

glucose, 32 

gluten meal, 55 

grains, 32 

hominy, 54 

Unseed meal, 58-59 

meat meal, 59, 60 

molasses, 56 

oat hulls, 53 

oils, 32 

skim milk, 61 

starch, 32 

sugar, 32 

whey, 61 
By-products, concentrates, 42 

Cabbage, vitamine in, 16 
Caecum, 18 
Calcium, 11 

in plants, 15 

in the skeleton, 21 
Calculating rations, 71 
Calves, 70 

alfalfa for, 38-39 

bran for, 51 

crushed grain for, 30 

linseed meal for, 59 



Carbohydrates, 11, 13-14, 19-20 

crude fiber, 23 

effects of digestive fluids, 20-21 

in oats, 45 

nitrogen free extract, 23 
Carbon, 11, 13 

in fats, 14 
Carriage horses, judging, 225-227 
Cattle, Ayrshire, 106, 122-124 

barley for, 46 

beef (see Beef cattle) 

beet pulp for, 55 

breeds, 106-130 

Brown Swiss, 124-125 

buckwheat middlings for, 52 

care of beef, 236-243 

classification, 106 

cottonseed meal for, 57 

dairy (see Dairy cattle) 

digestion experiments, 24-25 

dual-purpose, 106 

fattening, 30 

feeding standards, 70-73 

feed troughs, 242 

judging, 165-186 

linseed meal for, 59 

tuberculosis, 248-249 
Cells, phosphorus, 21 
Cellulose, 13, 19 

in crude fiber, 23 
Cell walls, 12 
Cereal grains, grass, S3 
Cereals, as grasses, 37 

by-products from, 53-54 

carbohydrates in, 14 
Chester White swine, 157-158 
Cheviot sheep, 131, 140-141 
Chickens, age of eggs, 283 

American class, 311, 315-316 

Anconas, 313 

artificial brooding, 285 

artificial incubation, 281-282 

Asiatic class, 311, 316-317 

Blue Andalusians, 313 

Brahmas, 317 

breed requirements, 311 

breeds, 307-319 

brooder, 286 

brooder house, 289-290 

brooding, 281-292 

care, 293-296 

care of chicks, 279 



INDEX 



34i 



Chickens — Continued 
chilling eggs, 282 
classes, 311 

cleanliness and incubation, 283 
Cochin, 317 

cooking food for, 296-297 
; Cornish, 318 
cut bone as feed, 296 
diseases, 302-303 
disinfectants, 304-305 
dual purpose breeds, 315-316 
dust baths, 301-302 
egg breeds, 307, 313 
eggs for incubation, 282 
English classes, 311, 315-316 
exhibition classes, 311, 317-319 
farm flock, 274-275 
feeding, 293-296 
feeding brooder chicks, 286-289 
feeding range stock, 299 
French classes, 311, 315-316 
Game, 318 

general purpose breeds, 308-309 
grinding food, 296-297 
grit, 295 

hatching, 284-285 
houses, 275-277 
incubation, 281-292 
inducing tp eat, 295 
essentials of good ration, 299-300 
green foods, 299 
judging, 309-311 
Langshan, 317 
laying, 293-306 
Leghorn, 274, 313 
lice and mites, 303-304 
Malay, 318 
meat breeds, 308 
Mediterranean classes, 311-313 
mineral matter, 295 
Minorcas, 313 

mistakes in treating, 279-280 
molting, 298-299 
Oriental classes, 311, 317-319 
Plymouth Rock, 274 
raising feed for, 300-301 
range-raised chicks, 291 
renewing flock, 278-279 
Rhode Island Red, 274 
rules for judging, 31 1 
sanitary precautions, 286 
score card for buff varieties, 300-310 



Chickens — Continued 

sitting hens, 279 

small flock, 290-291 

Spanish, 313 

standard rations, 297 

Sumatra, 318 

temperature and incubation, 283 

types, 307-3 1 Q 

variety in diet, 295-296 

water for, 294 

yard space, 277-278 
Chlorine, 11 

in digestion, 21 
Cholera, hog, 262-264 
Circulation, 18, 20, 21 
Cleveland Bay horse, 81, 93-94 
Clover, alsike, 40 

crimson, 40 

gas from eating, 20 

legume, 37 

mammoth red, 39-40 

medium red, 39 

mineral matter in, 15 

protein in, 13 

sweet, 40-41 

white, 40 
Clydesdale draft horse, 79, 85-86 
Coach horse, 81 

English, 81 

French, 81 

German, 81 

Hackney, 81 

Morgan, 96 

Yorkshire, 81 
Cochin chickens, 317 
Cod liver oil, vitamine in, 16 
Colic in horses, 235 
Colts, alfalfa for, 39 
Composition of animal body, 11-21 
Concentrates, 23, 42 

cereal foods, 32 

defined, 32 

ether extract, 23 

from slaughter of animals, 32 

glucose, 32 

grains, 32 

oil-bearing seeds, 32 

oils, 32 

starch, 32 

sugar, 32 
Condimental stock foods, 62 
Cooking, 26 



342 



INDEX 



Corn, 43-44 

a grass, 33 

analysis, 23-24 

bran, 54 

carbohydrates in, 14 

crushing, 30 

forage, 28 

for live stock, 34 

grinding, 30 

prevention of heating, 27 

roughage, 33 

silage, 48-50 

vitamines in, 16 
Cornish chickens, 318 
Corpuscles, red, 21 
Cotswold sheep, 146-147 
Cottonseed meal, 57 

protein in, 13 
Cottonseed poisoning, 58 
Cotton seeds, vitamines in, 16 
Cowpeas, 41 

legume, 37 
Cows, world's record, 271 
Crossbreeding, 266 
Crude fiber, 13, 19, 23 

cellulose in, 23 

digestibility, 25 

in bran, 51 

in feeding stuffs, 22 

in grasses, 14 

in hay, 24 

in oats, 45 

Dairy cattle, 106, 11 7-1 27, 244 
alfalfa for, 38 
Ayrshire, iq6, 122-124 
barns, 245 
bran for, 51 

Brown Swiss, 106, 124-125 
care, 244-250 
corn for, 43 
corn silage for, 50 
cottonseed meal for, 58 
Dutch Belted, 125-126 
feeding, 245-246, 247, 248 
food producers, 67 
French Canadian, 106, 126-127 
ground feed for, 30 
Guernsey, 106, 120-122 
Haecker's feeding standard, 333~337 
Holstein, 106 
Holstein-Friesian, n 7-1 18 



Dairy cattle — Continued 

Jersey, 1 18-120 

judging, 177-186 

Kerry, 106, 127 

management of, 244-250 

milk fever, 250 

oats for, 45 

production requirements, 247 

Shetland, 106 

variety in rations, 247-248 

water for, 68 
Dairying, advantages, 244-245 

cattle, 244 

equipment, 245-246 
Delaine Merino sheep, 131 
Delaine sheep, 132-133 
Devon cattle, 106, 129-130 
Digestibility, 24-27 

age of animal, 27 

amount of food, 27 

crushing feed, 26 

curing feed, 26 

curing forage, 26 

defined, 24 

drying feed, 26 

drying forage, 26 

effect of cooking, 26 

effect of kindness, 27 

effect of work, 27 

factors influencing, 25-27 

frequency of feeding, 27 

grinding feed, 26 

ground feed, 26 

how determined, 24-25 
Digestible nutrient, 24 
Digestion, 17 

age of animal, 27 

chlorine, 21 

kind of animal, 27 

of ox, 20 

of sheep, 20 
Digestive fluids, 20 
Digestive tract, 17, 18, 19 

water in, 21 
Disinfectants, 304-305 
Donkey, 101-102 

burro, 102 
Dorset sheep, 131, 141-143 
Draft horses, judging, 206-221 
Drying forage, 26 
Dual purpose cattle, 106, 127-130 

Devon, 106, 129-130 



INDEX 



343 



Dual purpose cattle — Continued 

Milking Shorthorn, 106 

Red Polled, 106, 127-129 
Ducks, 323-328 

care of ducklings, 325-326 

care of eggs, 324 

care of layers, 327-328 

drinking water, 324 

incubator, 324-325 

Indian Runners, 326-327 

quick growth of, 323 
Duodenum, 17 
Duroc Jersey swine, 153-154 
Dutch Belted cattle, 125-126 

Egyptian Geese, 328 

Embden geese, 328 

Emmer, 46 

Energy, 18, 19 
fat for, 21 

English Coach horse, 81 

Ensiling, 29 

Enzyme, 18, 20 

Erepsin, 18 

Ether extract, 23 

Exercises, 21, 31, 50, 78, 104—105, 130, 
151, 163-164, 186, 201, 230, 235, 
242-243, 250, 258, 264, 273, 280, 
292, 305-306, 319, 332 

Farm poultry (see Poultry) 
Fat, as nutrient, 23 

in feeding stuffs, 22 
Fats, 11, 14, 20-21 
Fattening, 66 

feeding for, 65-66 
Fatty tissue, 21 
Feed, and milk production, 67-68 

crushing, 26 

grinding, 26 

ground, 30 
Feeding, amount, 27 

and digestibility, 27 

for fattening, 65-66 

for growth, 65-66 

for maintenance, 63 

for milk production, 67 

for work production, 68 

frequency, 27 
Feeding standards, 70 
Feeding stuffs, 46 

alfalfa, 38-39 

alsike clover, 40 



Feeding stuffs — Continued 
analysis of, 22-24 
barley, 45-46, 53~54 
beans, 41 
beet pulp, 55-56 
Bermuda grass, 37 
blood meal, 60 
bran, 51 

brome grass, 36-37 
buckwheat middlings, 52 
buttermilk, 61 
by-products, 32, 51-62 
carbohydrates in, 19 
cereals as grasses, 37 
charcoal, 70 
classes, 32-50 
concentrates, 32, 42 
condimental stock foods, 62 
cooking, 31 
corn, 33-34, 43-44 
corn bran, 54 
corn silage, 48-50 
cottonseed meal, 57 
cowpeas, 41 
crimson clover, 40 
curing, 28 
drying, 28 

for young animals, 69-70 
germ meal, 54 
gluten feed, 55 
gluten meal, 55 
grasses, 32-33 
hominy feeds, 54 
how used, 63-78 
Kentucky blue grass, 34 
legumes, 37 
linseed meal, 58-59 
mammoth red clover, 39-40 
marsh grass, 36 
meat meal, 60 
medium red clover, 39 
molasses feeds, 56 
oat hulls, 53 
oats, 44-45 
orchard grass, 35 
peanuts, 41 
peas, 41 

preparation, 22-31 
preservation, 27-29 
proper mixture, 71-72 
protein in, 13 
red dog, 52 



344 



INDEX 



Feeding stuffs — Continued 

redtop, 36 

rice bran, 53 

root crops, 46-48 

roots, 32 

roughages, 32 

rye, 46 

salt, 70 

screenings, 53 

skim milk, 61 

smaller grasses, 34 

soaking, 31 

sorghums, 34 

starch feeds, 55 

straws, 42 

sugar feeds, 55 

sweet clover, 40-41 

tankage, 59-60 

timothy, 35 

tubers, 32 

value of, 24 

vetch, 42 

wet feeds, 31 

wheat, 44 

wheat middlings, 52 

whey, 61 

white clover, 40 
Fermentation, bacterial, 20 
Fiber, crude, 19, 23 
Fibers, muscular, 18 
Figuring rations, 73-78 
Fluids, digestive, 20 
Fodders, digestibility, 25 
Food, absorption of, 17, 18 

assimilation of, 17 

in the body, 16-17 
Food producer, dairy cow as, 67 
Forage, corn as, 28 

value of drying, 26 
French-Canadian cattle, 106, 126-127 
French Coach horse, 91-92 

Galloway cattle, 106-114 
Game chickens, 318 
Gases, toxic properties, 20 , 
Gastric juice, 18 
Geese, African, 328 

breeding stock, 329-330 

Chinese, 328 

Egyptian, 328 

Embden, 328 

fattening, 331 



Geese — Continued 

feeding goslings, 330 

incubation, 330 

ranges, 328 

Toulouse, 328 

Wild, 328 
Germ meal, 54 
German Coach horse, 92-93 
Glands of mouth, 19 
Glucose, 13, 19 
Gluten food, 55 
Glycogen, 13 
Goats, 149-150 
Grass, 32 

Bermuda, 33, 37 

brome, 33, 36-37 

cereal grains, 33 

cereals as, 37 

corn, 33 

crude fiber in, 14 

Italian rye, 33 

Johnson, 33 

Kentucky blue, 33, 34 

marsh, 36 

orchard, 33, 35 

prairie, 36 

quack, 33 

redtop, 36 

roughage, 32 

smaller varieties, 34 

timothy, 33, 35 
Ground feed, 30 
Growth, feeding for, 65-66 
Guernsey cattle, 106, 120-122 
Guernsey Cattle Club, 270 
Gullet, 17, 19 

of ox, 19-20 

of sheep, 20 

Hackney horse, 89-90 

Hackney pony, 81, 99, 100 

Haecker's feeding standard, 333-337 

Hair, 12, 18 

Hampshire sheep, 131, 137-138 

Hampshire swine, 161-163 

Hay, alfalfa, 38 

making, 28-29 

nitrogen free extract in, 24 

roughage, 24 

timothy, 23-24, 35 
Heat, fat for, 21 

for the body, 18 



INDEX 



345 



Hereford cattle, 106, iio-in 
Highland pony, 81 
Hogs, alfalfa for, 39 

barley for, 46 

charcoal for, 70 

corn for, 30 

Unseed meal, 59 

poisoned by cotton seed, 58 

wheat middlings, 52 
Holstein Association, 270 
Holstein cattle, 106 
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 11 7-1 18 
Home projects, 21, 31, 50, 62, 78, 105, 130, 

151, 164, 186, 201, 230, 235, 243, 250, 

258, 264, 273, 280, 292, 306, 319, 332 
Hominy feeds, 54 
Honeycomb, 20 
Hoofs, 12, 18 
Horns, 12, 18 
Horses, age, 206-208 

American Saddle, 81 

American Trotter, 81, 94-96 

Arabian, 81, 96-97 

Belgian,- 79, 84-85 

blemishes, 202-206 

bran for, 52 

breeds, 79-105 

brood mare, 233-234 

care of, 231-235 

carriage, 81 

classification, 79 

Cleveland Bay, 81, 93-94 

Clydesdale, 79, 85-86 

Coach, 81, 89-98 

colic, 235 

cottonseed meal for, 57 

cutting hay for, 29 

donkey, 101-102 

draft, 79 

English Coach, 81 

feeding standards for, 72 

food for work, 231-232 

French Coach, 81, 91-92 

German Coach, 81, 92-93 

grinding food for, 26 

grooming, 231 

Hackney, 81, 89-90 

judging, 202-230 

management of, 231-235 

Morgan, 96 

oats for, 45 

Orloff Trotter, 81 



Horses — Continued 

Percheron, 79, 81-83 

ponies, 81, 98-100 

race, 95-96 

rations, 232-233 

roadster, 81 

Saddle, 226 

Shire, 79, 87-88 

silage for, 50 

stables, 231 

stallion enrollment, 273 

straw as food for, 42 

Suffolk, 88 

Suffolk Punch, 79 

teeth of, 206-208 

Thoroughbred, 81, 97-98 

timothy for, 35 

unsoundness, 202-206 

work, 30 

Yorkshire, 81 
Hoven, 20 
Hybrids, 266 
Hydrogen, n, 13 

in fats, 14 

Ileum, 17 

Improvement, live stock (see Live 

stock) 
Inbreeding, 266 
Incubation, age of eggs, 283 

artificial, 281-282 

brooder, 286 

brooding chicks, 285-286 

chilling eggs, 282 

cleanliness, 283 

feeding brooder chicks, 286-289 

hatching, 284-285 

moisture, effect of, 284 

sanitary precautions, 286 

selecting eggs, 282 

temperature, 283 

thermometer, 284 
Indian pony, 81, 99 
Indian Runner ducks, 326-327 
Insalivation, 17 
Intestine, carbohydrates in, 19 

enzyme in, 18 

erepsin in, 18 

soaps in, 21 

trypsin in, 18 
Iron, 11, 21 
Italian rye grass, S3 



346 



INDEX 



Jejunum, 17 

Jersey Association, 270 

Jersey cattle, 106, 11 8-1 20 

Johnson grass, 3s 

Judging bacon hogs, 1 91-192 

Judging beef cattle, back, 174 

body, chest, 173 

breeder's demands, 166-168 

butcher's demands, 166 

cheap cuts, 165 

crops, 173 

feeder's demands, 166 

finish, 169-170 

flank, 174 

forequarters, 171-172 

form of animal, 168 

head and neck, 171 

high-priced cuts, 165 

hindquarters, 174-175 

loin, 174 

quality, 168-169 

ribs, 174 

score card, 175-176 

style and temperament, 1 70-1 71 

waste material, 165-166 
Judging breeding horses, 229-230 
Judging breeding swine, 192-193 
Judging dairy cattle, body, 1 81-182 

determining type, 177-179 

forequarters, 181 

form of cow, 179 

head and neck, 181 

hindquarters, 182-183 

mammary veins, 183-184 

quality, 180 

score cards, 184-186 

temperament, 1 80-1 81 
Judging draft horses, action, 2 10-2 11 

age, 206-208 

arm, 213 

ears, 212 

back, 217 

cannons, 214 

chest, 216 

croup, 217-218 

eyes, 212 

feet, 215-216 

fetlocks, 214 

forearm, 213 

forehead, 212 

form, 209-210 

gaskins, 219 



Judging draft-horses — Continued 

head, 212 

height, 208-209 

hind legs, 220 

hips, 217 

hocks, 219-220 

knees, 213-214 

loins, 217 

lower jaw, 213 

muzzle, 213 

neck, 213 

pasterns, 214-215 

quality, 210 

quarters, 218 

ribs, 216-217 

score card, 221 

shoulders, 213 

stifles, 218 

temperament, 21 1-2 12 

thighs, 218 

underline, 217 

weight, 209 
Judging horses, blemishes, 202-206 

curb, 205 

fistula of withers, 204 

heaves, 204 

poll evil, 203-204 

ringbone, 204 

roaring, 204 

sidebones, 204 

spavin, 205 

stringhalt, 205-206 

thoroughpin, 204-205 

unsoundness, 202—206 
Judging lard hogs, back, 189-190 

belly and flank, 190 

breast and chest, 189 

disposition, 188 

hams, 190-191 

head and neck, 188 

hip and rump, 190 

legs, 191 

loin, 190 

quality, 188 

shoulder, 189 

sides, 189 
Judging light horses, action, 222-223 

arm, 223 

body, 224 

cannon bones, 223-224 

feet, 224 

fetlocks, 223-224 



INDEX 



347 



Judging light horses — Continued 

form, 222 

head and neck, 223 

height, 222 

hindquarters, 224-225 

knees, 223 

pasterns, 224 

quality, 222 

score card, 228 

shoulders, 223 

temperament, 223 

weight, 222 
Judging mules, 229 
Judging ponies, 227-229 
Judging sheep, body, 196 

chest, 195-196 

disposition, 195 

form, 194-195 

form for mutton, 194 

head and neck, 195 

legs, 196 

quality, 195 

score card, 200 

wool, 196-199 
Judging swine, 187-193 

Kafir, 34 

Kent sheep, 149 

Kentucky blue grass, 33, 34 

Kerry cattle, 106, 127 

Kidney beans, vitamine in, 16 

Kidneys, 19 

Kindness, value, 27 

Lambs, 252 

oats for, 45 
Langshan chickens, 317 
Lard hog, 260-261 
Large Yorkshire swine, 159-160 
Lean-meat tissues, 12 
Leghorn chickens, 274, 313 
Legumes, 37 

roughage, 32 
Lehmann, Dr. C, 71 
Leicester sheep, 144-146 
Ligaments, 18 
Lime in the skeleton, 21 
Lincoln sheep, 143-144 
Linseed meal, 58-59 

protein, 13 
Live stock improvement, atavism, 265- 

266 



Live stock improvement — Continued 

crossbreeding, 266 

heredity, 265 

hybrids, 266 

inbreeding, 266 

line breeding, 266 

mutants, 266 

selection, 265 

sire, pure-bred, 267 

stallion enrollment, 273 

subsidizing sires, 272 

Test Associations, 271 
Lungs, 19 

Magnesium, 11 

in blood, 21 
in bones, 21 

in plants, 15 
Maintenance, factors, 64 

feeding for, 63 

roughages for, 63-64 

size, relation to, 64 
Malay chickens, 318 
Maltose, 19 
Manyplies, 20 
Mare, brood, 233-234 
Margarines, vitamine in, 16 
Marsh grass, 36 
Mastication, 17 
Meal, germ, 54 

gluten, 55 
Meat meal, 59-60 
Middlings, protein in, 13 
Milch goats, 150 
Milk, commercial value, 61 

fat content, 70 

feeding for production, 67 

production, care essential, 67-68 

skim milk, 61 

vitamine in, 16 
Milk fever, 250 
Milking Shorthorn cattle, 106 
Milk sugar, 61 
Mineral matter, in bran, 51 

in feeding stuffs, 23 

in oats, 45 

water and, 21 
Mineral substances, 11, 15 
Minorca chickens, 313 
Mixture of feeds, 71-72 
Molasses feeds. 56 
Morgan horse, 96 



348 



INDEX 



Mouth, 19 
Mules, 102-104 
judging, 229 
Muscular fibers, 18 
Mustang pony, 81, 99 
Mutants, 266 

Nai's, 12 
Nerve cells, 12 
Nerves, 18 
Nitrogen, n, 12, 13 

in protein, 23 
Nitrogen free extract, 22, 23 

digestibility, 25 
Nutrient, digestible, 22, 24 

fat as, 23 
Nutritive ratio, 68-69 

Oat hulls, 53 
Oats, 37, 44-45 

carbohydrates in, 14 

value of crushing, 26 

vitamines in, 16 
Omasum, 20 
Orchard grass, 33, 35 
Organism, parts, 11 
Orloff Trotter, 81 
Ox, digestion, 20, 27 

stomachs of, 19-20 
Oxford sheep, 131 
Oxygen, 13 

in fats, 14 

in red corpuscles, 21 

Pancreas, 18, 20 
Pancreatic juice, 18 
Paunch, 19-20 
Peanuts, 41—42 

legume, 37 

protein in, 13 

vitamine in, 16 
Peas, 41 

mineral in, 15 

protein in, 13 
Pepsin, 18 

Percheron draft horse, 79, 81-83 
Phosphorus, n 

in plants, 11,15 

in proteins, 21 

in the skeleton, 21 
Pigs, buttermilk for, 61 

skim milk for, 61 
Plant, maturity, 25 



Plymouth Rock chickens, 274 

Pneumonia, 253 

Poland China swine, 152-153 

Polled Durham cattle, 106, 109-110 

Polled Hereford cattle, 106, 11 2-1 13 

Polo pony, 81 

Ponies, 81, 98—100 

American, 99 

broncho, 81, 99 

Hackney, 81 

Highland, 81 

Indian, 81, 99 

judging, 227-229 

mustang, 81, 99 

Polo, 81 

Shetland, 81, 99-100 

Welsh, 81, 99, 100 
Potassium, 11 

in plants, 15 
Potatoes, starch in, 14 
Poultry, 274—332 

American class, 311 

artificial incubation, 281-282 

Asiatic class, 311 

breed requirements, 311 

breeds of chickens, 307-319 

brooder house, 289-290 

brooding, 281-292 

care of clucks, 279 

care of flock, 275 

classes, 311 

cooking food, 296-297 

diseases, 302-303 

disinfectants, 304-305 

ducks, 323-331 

egg breeds, 307 

English class, 311 

Exhibition class, 311 

farm flock, 274-275 

feeding, 293-296 

French class, 311 

geese, 328-331 

general purpose breeds, 308-309 

grinding food, 296-297 

hens, 274-319 

houses, 275-277 

incubation, 281-292 

judging, 309-311 

laying hens, 293-306 

lice and mites, 303-304 

meat breeds, 308 

Mediterranean class, 31 1-3 13 



INDEX 



349 



Poultry — Continued 

Oriental class, 311 

pure-bred fowls, 274-275 

raising feed, 300-301 

renewing flock, 278-279 

rules for judging, 311 

score card, 309-311 

sitting hens, 279 

small flock, 290-291 

testing thermometer, 284 

turkeys, 320-323 

types of chickens, 307-319 
Prairie grass, 36 
Protein, analyzing for, 12 

effect of digestive fluids, 20-21 

for repair of waste, 19 

in bran, 51 

in feed stuffs, 22 

in stomach, 18 

in oats, 45 

phosphorus in, 15, 21 

Race horse, 95-96 
Racks, feeding, 254 
Rambouillet sheep, 131, 133-134 
Ration, balanced, 63 

figuring, 71, 73-78 

trial, 73-77 

varying, 169 
Red dog, 52 

Red Polled cattle, 106, 128-129 
Redtop, 36 
Rennin, 18 

Resins in roughage, 23 
Reticulum, 20 

Rhode Island Red chickens, 274 
Rice, bran, 53 

carbohydrates in, 14 

vitamine in, 16 
Roadster horse, American Saddle, 81 

American Trotter, 81 

Arabian, 81 

judging, 225-227 

Orloff Trotter, 81 

Thoroughbred, 81 
Romney Marsh sheep, 149 
Root crops, 32, 46-48 

commonly used, 47-48 

similar to grass, 47 

water in, 47 
Roughage, 23 

alfalfa, 38 



Roughage — Continued 

corn, 33 

defined, 32 

digestibility, 25 

ether extract of, 23 

for maintenance, 63-64 

for ruminants, 70 

grasses, 32 

legumes, 32 

silage, 32 

stover, 32 

straw, 32 
Rumen, 20 

Ruminants, roughage for, 70 
Ruminating animals, 17 

experiments with, 24-25 
Rumination, 17 
Rye, 37, 46 

carbohydrates in, 14 

Saddle horse, gaits, 226-227 

judging, 225-227 
Saliva, 19 
Salt, 70, 248, 254 
Sanfoin, legume, 37 
Score card, beef cattle, 176 

chickens, 309-310 

dairy cattle, 185 

draft horses, 221 

light horses, 228 

sheep, 200 

swine 193 
Screenings, 53 
Secretions of stomach, 18 
Seeds, concentrates, 42 
Seradella, legume, 37 
Serum, sodium in, 21 
Sheep, alfalfa for, 39 

American Merino, 131-132 

Black Face Highland, 131, 147-149 

breeds, 131-151 

care, 251-258 

Cheviot, 131, 140-141 

classification, 131 

cost, 252-253 

Cotswold, 131, 146-147 

cottonseed meal for, 57 

Delaine, 132-133 

Delaine Merino, 131 

digestion, 20, 24-25, 27 

dipping tank, 257 

docking, 256-257 



35° 



INDEX 



Sheep — Continued 

Dorset, 131, 141-143 

economy in raising, 251 

exercise, 254 

fattening, 255-256 

feeding, 251-252, 254, 255-256 

feeding racks, 254 

feeding standards, 72 

feeds for, 255 

fine-wool breeds, 131-134 

grain for, 30 

Hampshire, 131, 137-138 

judging, 194-200 

Kent, 131, 149 

lambs, 252 

Leicester, 131, 144-146 

Lincoln, 143-144 

linseed meal for, 59 

long- wool breeds, 131, 143-149 

management of, 251-258 

medium-wool breeds, 131, 134-143 

oats for, 45 

Oxford, 131, 136-137 

paunch of, 20 

pneumonia in, 253 

Rambouillet, 131, 133-134 

Romney Marsh, 131, 149 

salt for, 254 

shepherd, 253 

Shropshire, 131, 134-136 

Southdown, 131, 138-140 

stabling, 253 

stomachs of, 20 

Suffolk, 131, 141 

ticks, 257 

Tunis, 131, 143 
Shepherd, 253 
Shetland cattle, 106 

ponies, 81 
Shire draft horse, 79, 87-88 
Shorthorn cattle, 106-109 
Shropshire sheep, 131, 134-136 
Silage, 29 

alfalfa, 38 

corn, 48-50 

feeding, 50 

peas, 41 

roughage, 32 
Silicon, 11 
Silo, 29 

calculating capacity, 49-50 

filling, 48-49 



Sire, pure-bred, 267 
Skeleton, 21 
Skim milk, 61 
Skin, 18, 19 
Soaps, 20-21 
Sodium, 11 

in plants, 15 

in serum, 21 
Sorghums, 34 

Southdown sheep, 131, 138-140 
Soy beans, vitamines in, 16 
Spanish chickens, 313 
Stable, 231, '245, 253 
Stallion enrollment, 273 
Standard bred horse, 96 
Standards, feeding, 70-73 

Wolff, 71 

Wolff-Lehmann, 71-73 
Starch, 13, 14, 19 

feeds, 55 

nitrogen free extract in, 23 
Steapsin, 20 
Steers, alfalfa for, 38 

bran for, 51 

corn for, 43 

cottonseed meal for, 57 
Stock foods, condimental, 62 
Stomach, 17, 18, 19, 20 
Stover, corn, 29 

roughage, 32 
Straw, cutting, 29 

roughage, 32 
Straws, 42 
Suffolk horse, 88-89 
Suffolk Punch draft horse, 79 
Suffolk sheep, 131, 141 
Sugar, in beets, 14 

nitrogen free extract in, 23 
Sugar beet molasses, 56 
Sugar beets, 14 
Sugar cane, 55 
Sugar feeds, 55 
Sugars, 13 
Sulphur, 11 
Sumatra chickens, 318 
Swine, bacon breeds, 159-163 

Berkshire, 155-156 

breeds of, 152-164 

brood sow, 260 

care of, 250-264 

Cheshire, 159 

Chester White, 157-158 



INDEX 



35i 



Swine — Continued 
Duroc Jersey, 153-154 
Essex, 158 
feeding, 261-262 
feeding standards, 72 
feeding young pigs, 260 
grinding food for, 26 
Hampshire, 161-163 
hog cholera, 262-264 
housing, 259 
judging, 187-193 
lard breeds, 152-158 
lard hog, 260-261 
Large Yorkshire, 1 50-1 60 
minor breeds, 158-159 
pasture, 262 
Poland China, 152-153 
Small Yorkshire, 158 
Suffolk, 158 
Tamworth, 1 60-161 
Victoria, 158 
with steers, 240-241 

Tamworth swine, 1 60-161 
Tankage, 50-60 
Test Associations, 271 
Thermometer, 284 
Thoroughbred horse, 81, 97-98 
Timothy, 35 

for horses, 35 

grass, 33 

hay, 23-24 

roughage, 24 
Tissue, fatty, 21 
Tissues, 18 

water in, 21 
Toulouse geese, 328 
Toxic properties of gases, 20 
Trypsin, 18 



Tuberculin test, 249 

Tuberculosis, in cattle, 248-249 

Tubers, 32 

Tunis sheep, 131, 143 

Turkeys, brooding young, 322-323 

hens, 321 

incubation of eggs, 322 

nesting, 322 

rangers preferable, 321-322 
Type defined, 79 

Vetch, 42 

a legume, 37 
Vitamines, 16 

Waste material, 19 
Water, 11, 15-16 

in feed stuffs, 22 

in tissues, 21 

mineral matter and, 21 
Waxes in roughage, 23 
Welsh pony, 81, 99, 100 
West Highland cattle, 106 
Wheat, 44 

vitamines in, 16 
Wheat bran, protein in, 13 
Wheat middlings, 52 
Whey, 61 
Wild geese, 328 
Wolff, Emil von, 71 
Wolff -Lehmann standards, 71-73 
Wolff standards, 7 1 
Work, and digestion, 27 

animals' rations, 68 
Work horse, 30 

food for, 231-232 

Yorkshire Coach horse, 81 
Young animal, needs of, 69-70 



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